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COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY FRANK N. FREEMAN 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
U . S . A 



y 

JAN -2 i9i5 



^"^^20-$ 



CONTENTS 

Editor's Introduction . , vii 

I. The Nature of the Problem . . . . i 
II. The Constitution and Development of the 

Writing Process 8 

III. The Physiology and Hygiene of Writing . 32 

IV. The Teaching of Handwriting ... 56 
V. Aims and Standards for Handwriting . 118 

Outline 153 

Appendix . . 157 



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in 2010 witii funding from 
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FIGURES 

1. Judd's Hand Tracer lo 

2. Tracer-Records of Coordination . .11 

3. Diagram of the Relation of the Body 

AND Arms to the Desk and the Paper g8 

4. Specimens of Vertical Writing showing 

Assimilation of the Upward to the 
Downward Stroke in Direction . . 99 

5. Illustrations of Formal Drills . . loi 

6. Illustrations of the Lateral Movement 

Drills as used in the Bennett System 102 

7. Illustrations of Exercises with later- 

ally Spaced Letters 104 

8. Classification and Order of "Develop- 

ment OF Letters in the Economy Sys- 
tem 107 

9. Types of Illegible Forms of Letters 

which are to be counted as Errors 135 

10. Specimen of Handwriting for Grading . 141 
V 



FIGURES 

11. Diagram showing the Results or Meas- 

urement OF Speed and Quality of 
Writing in one School System and 
Tentative Standards for Speed and 
Quality i4S 

12. Standard Scale for Quality and Speed 150 

13. For use in Grading Uniformity of Slant 

and Alinement 151 

CHARTS 

(IN APPENDIX) 

I. Showing Different Degrees of Uniformity 
OF Slant. 

II. Showing Different Degrees of Uniformity 
OF Alinement. 

III. Showing Different Degrees of Quality of 

Line. 

IV. Showing Different Degrees of Excellence 

IN Letter Formation. 

V. Showing Different Degrees of Excellence 
in Spacing. 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

Tradition has dominated the teaching of hand- 
writing as it has no other school study. It has 
been the last of the so-called formal subjects to 
be influenced by the newer educational thought. 
Aside from the notable but temporary contro- 
versy as to vertical or slant writing, the ped- 
agogy of penmanship has scarcely been an im- 
portant concern in educational discussion. Not 
until quite recently have we really had any im- 
portant professional publications upon the sub- 
ject. The result has been a tardy development 
of economical and efficient methods of teaching 
children to write. 

It would be a mistake to imply that teachers 
have not been conscious of the problems involved 
in the teaching of handwriting. They have. 
Every teacher is aware of the controversies as 
to slant, size, position, movement, speed, accu- 
racy, etc. They are part of the craft troubles of 
every pedagogue, inherited along with traditions 
of technique and subject-matter. But it must be 
frankly admitted that teachers as a class have 
vii 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

been complacent about these matters. At least 
they have given far less energy to the solution of 
these disputes than they have to similar ones in 
reading, spelling, and arithmetic. This attitude 
is a little difficult to explain, particularly when 
it is understood that bad penmanship, like poor 
spelling, constitutes one of the readiest means 
of attacking the efficiency of teachers. It is prob- 
able that the ordinary experiences of teachers 
were incapable of rendering the necessary deci- 
sions. A more expert psychological analysis and 
a more careful pedagogical experimentation than 
ordinary teachers were able to conduct were 
needed to illumine the situation. This seems to 
be borne out by the fact that interest in the ped- 
agogy of writing began to stir the moment an 
educational psychology and an experimental 
pedagogy began to be developed. 

Until very recently such innovations as ap- 
peared in the teaching of penmanship were in- 
troduced by those whose prime interest in the 
matter was commercial rather than professional. 
A new system of penmanship had to have some 
new idea to commend it above its predecessors. 
In consequence penmanship has been overrun 
with plans of instruction dominated by a single 
device, arrangement, or method. This exploita- 
viii 



EDITORS' INTRODUCTION 

lion of some one phase of teaching technique, to 
the consequent neglect of others that should 
have been combined with it, accounts for the 
more or less faddistic tone which has accompanied 
programs for reform in the teaching of hand- 
writing. A new writing system has usually meant 
an attempt to find a new specific for all the ills of 
illegible and ungraceful penmanship, rather than 
a wide survey and appraisal of all the means at 
command. In such circumstances, it was natural 
that the rank and file of teachers should feel a 
wholesome suspicion of the constant attempts at 
radical change. They became conservative, and 
have remained more conservative in this subject 
than in any other. Accruing systems of instruc- 
tion have not interested teachers as much as they 
should, considering that, however extreme and 
one-sided these plans may be, they usually repre- 
sent successful experience in a particular direc- 
tion. Out of this lethargy the mass of teachers 
must be roused. 

It will not be difficult to interest classroom 
teachers in the improvement of their methods of 
teaching pupils to write, provided they be offered 
a program of constructive suggestions which is 
known to rest on accurate, scientific investiga- 
tion. The fact that teachers are conservative in 
ix 



EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION 

their attitude toward change in the teaching of 
penmanship does not imply that they are satis- 
fied with their own accomplishments. Penman- 
ship offers one of the most tangible checks upon 
the efficiency of teaching, and teachers are not 
blind to the desirability of a good output. They 
will manifest a renewed interest in the problem 
the moment they feel that the discussion is sound. 
It is with unusual confidence that this volume 
on the psychology, physiology, hygiene, and ped- 
agogy of handwriting is offered to the teaching 
profession. It will interest every person who is 
in any way concerned with the teaching of the 
subject, because it presents a far-reaching and 
thorough analysis of the problem and its various 
elements. Moreover, it will aid thousands of 
groping [teachers in diagnosing the defects of 
their children's achievements, in suggesting the 
appropriate methods for inducing improvement, 
and in giving some accurate objective standards 
for the measurement of individual and class 
progress. It represents just what the profession 
has long required, — a treatment so scientific 
that it commands respect, and so simply stated 
that it can be readily used. 



THE TEACHING OF HAND- 
WRITING 



THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 

Handwriting a new form of expression 

Learning to write consists primarily in the ac- 
quirement of a new form of expression. Because 
of the prominence of the technical problems 
connected with the development of the writing 
movement we must not lose sight of the fact that 
the movement is not an end in itself, but is 
merely a means of expression. The child may be 
able to form the letters fluently and legibly and 
yet the writing may be deficient because it has not 
become subordinated to his thought processes. 
Writing has not been thoroughly learned until 
the child can give his attention chiefly to the 
train of thought he is engaged in expressing 
while the mechanics of the production of the 
letters are relegated to the realm of habit. 
I 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

The teaching problem centers in the writing 
movement 

While keeping the fact in mind that writing is 
not merely a movement by which certain marks 
are made on paper, it remains true that the prac- 
tical problems of teaching center largely in the 
development of such a movement. To be able 
to guide the child in the most economical and 
efficient development of the writing movement 
demands an understanding of its nature and the 
conditions of its growth. It is well to appreciate 
clearly, in the first place, that writing is not an 
instinctive form of expression. In this it differs 
from speech. The child instinctively practices 
and gains control over the syllables which will 
later be combined to form the words of his na- 
tive language.; Children in fact have been known 
to develop a crude language of their own even 
when there is a fully developed language at hand 
to imitate. But no such instinctive tendency 
underlies the writing habit, the instinctive activi- 
ties which are most nearly related to it being 
the grasping reflex and the indefiiiite tendency 
to handle objects. On the contrary the various 
simpler movements which are combined to form 
the complex writing movement are wrought into 



THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 

a harmonious coordination only after a large 
amount of intelligently directed drill. The per- 
fection of the speech activities requires practice 
also, but the practice in this case merely serves 
to render an instinctive adjustment more ac- 
curate, while in the case of writing the adjust- 
ment is not only perfected but is created through 
practice. 

An artificial product of training rather than an 
instinctive activity 

The importance of the teacher's part and the 
character of the teacher's equipment for his task 
are determined by this fact that writing is so 
largely an artificial product of training rather 
than an instinctive activity. The teacher should 
know clearly not merely what kind of written 
characters he wishes the child to produce, but 
also the constitution of the movement by which 
they are to be made. The correct movement will 
not develop itself automatically in the effort to 
make lines or letters of a certain sort. The same 
line may be made by a movement which is easy 
and fluent or by one that is difficult and slow. In 
order that the teacher may choose intelligently 
between the different possible ways of writing 
he should not merely follow rules of thumb, but 
3 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

should know something of the way in which the 
various sensations, images, ideas and movements 
are associated in writing. 

It is particularly important to know, further- 
more, not merely how these factors are associated 
in adult writing, but also how they become as- 
sociated in the development of the child. We 
need to know the changes which take place from 
one period of the child's life to another, and how 
they may be affected by training. The mistake 
is often made of merely determining upon the 
best form of writing for adults, and of failing to 
take account of the modifications which are nec- 
essary to be made in adapting the aims and 
methods of teaching to children of various ages. 
The development of writing in the child is gov- 
erned not only by the general laws of habit for- 
mation as applied to this particular process, but 
also by the laws of the development of motor 
capacity in the child. 

Psychology, physiology, and hygiene involved 

The concern of the teacher is not confined to 
the hand movements and the expression of mean- 
ings by them. Writing also involves adjustments 
of other parts of the body. The eyes are em- 
ployed in following the stroke as it forms the 

4 



THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 

letters and words, in order that they may be com- 
pared with a standard which is actually before 
the writer or is held in the imagination. These 
adjustments of the eyes, besides throwing light 
upon the process of the recognition, which is a 
necessary part of writing, raise problems in the 
hygiene of the writing process. Indeed, the opin- 
ion which was held regarding the effect of differ- 
ent styles of writing on the eye movements and 
adjustments, and the effect of these movements 
and adjustments on the eye and its fimctions, 
has led to radical modifications in the manner 
of writing and the style of the letters which are 
used. The same significance attaches to the pos- 
ture which the child assumes in writing. Con- 
siderations of hygiene also have bearing on the 
character of the materials which the child uses, 
and the amount of light which falls upon the 
paper, together with the direction from which it 
comes. 

The grasp of the general principles of the 
psychology, physiology, and hygiene of writing, 
which have been shown to be an important part 
of the teacher's equipment, lays the foundation 
for a detailed and more extensive consideration 
of the practical problems of instruction. There 
are certain issues about which controversies have 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

waged. In these controversies sometimes one 
and sometimes the other party has prevailed. 
But the issues have not been permanently set- 
tled because the decisions have not been made 
on the basis of a thoroughgoing understanding of 
the fundamental principles which underlie the 
solution. Furthermore, the experience gained in 
the trial of alternative methods, by which the 
answer to many questions of detail of method 
must be reached, has not been made available 
through a standardization of the conditions of 
the trial and the keeping of an accurate record of 
the results. At the present time much light can 
be thrown on the ancient controversies by bring- 
ing to bear upon them our knowledge of the fun- 
damental make-up of the writing process, while 
much remains to be done in the determination 
of details of procedure through scientific tests. 

In order to make the teaching of any subject 
as efficient as possible, we must know not merely 
the mental development which is involved in 
learning the subject and the methods of teaching 
which are the best, but we should also know def- 
initely what results should be attained and how 
these results may be measured. We may thus 
set before ourselves and our pupils definite aims 
and standards of attainment. Such aims and 
6 



THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 

standards not only furnish a criterion by which 
we may decide whether progress is being made, 
but they also serve as spurs or motives to prog- 
ress. Accordingly the last chapter contains an 
analysis of the qualities according to which writ- 
ing may be judged to be good or bad and a stand- 
ard of attainment which is proposed for the 
pupils of the various grades of the elementary 
school. 

The aim of the following pages is to treat the 
problems which have been outlined in such a 
way as to be of service to the teacher who is con- 
fronted with the practical situation in the school- 
room. 



II 



THE CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF 
THE WRITING PROCESS 

The writing act is complex 

When an educated adult writes a letter the proc- 
ess appears to be a perfectly easy and natural 
one. The connection between the words which ex- 
press the ideas in his mind and the hand move- 
ments by which the words are written seems to 
be a direct and matter-of-course connection. In 
the same way all actions in which we have at- 
tained proficiency appear simple. But this sim- 
plicity is something which has been achieved 
through a long course of practice. The outward 
act remains as complex as ever, but the actor has 
ceased to pay attention to all of its details, as we 
shall see more particularly. 

In order to convince ourselves of the fact that 
the complexity of the writing movement is re- 
flected much more completely in the mind of the 
child than in our own, we have only to regard our 
experience in an activity in which we are rela- 
tively imskilled. We can reproduce in a measure 
8 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

in our own experience the condition under which 
the child writes by endeavoring to trace an out- 
line which is seen in a mirror. Under these con- 
ditions the pencil goes off in all sorts of unex- 
pected directions, and the attention is drawn to 
each separate adjustment which it is necessary to 
make in order to bring the pencil back from its 
erratic course, and to the movements of the hand 
and fingers by which these adjustments are made. 
A still closer analogy exists between the child's 
writing and the attempts of an adult to write 
with the toes. This is not at all a fantastic il- 
lustration. Anybody can learn to write with the 
toes who will expend the same amount of time and 
effort which the child expends in learning to write 
with his fingers. A little experimentation with 
some such unusual kind of writing will be more 
efficacious than a large amount of mere discussion 
in making one realize that the writing habit is not 
instinctive, that it must be developed gradually 
and by much practice, and that it is very complex. 

The movement is composed of a variety of 
elementary movements 

If we consider merely the muscles and joints 
which are involved in the writing movement we 
gain some notion of its complexity. Professor 

9 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 



Judd ^ has furnished us with a method of dis- 
tinguishing some of the elementary movements 

in writing by the 
use of his "hand 
tracer," shown in 
Fig. I. This instru- 
ment is fastened by 
a spring about the 
hand at the base of 
the little finger, and 
records the move- 
ments of the hand 
and arm. In some 
experiments which 




Figure i 



Reproduced from Genetic Psychol- 
ogy for Teachers, by Charles Hubbard 
Judd. Copyright, 1903, by D. Apple- 
ton and Company. 



were made with this instrument it was foimd 
that in the writing of most individuals both the 
arm and fingers play an essential part in the writ- 
ing movement. This is made evident by Fig. 2, 
which is copied from Professor Judd's report. 
Whether or not it is best to move the fingers as 
well as the arm in writing is a question to be 
discussed more fully in the chapter on pedagogy, 
but the fact that most persons write in this way 
is significant. Some persons write with more and 
some with less finger movement, but only a very 
few, who have had special training beyond that 
1 C. H. Judd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers, chap. vi. 
10 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

which is given in the ordinary school course, are 
able to exclude finger movements entirely. 
In the case of the majority of persons, then, 



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Figure 2 



Reproduced from ' Genetic Psychology for Teachers, by Charles ' 
Hubbard Judd. Copyright, 1903, by D. Appleton and Company. 

there is division of labor between the arm and 
the fingers. One function of the arm is clearly to 
carry the hand along the line from the left to the 
right side of the paper. This may be done either 
by swinging the forearm about on a pivot formed 
II 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

by the elbow or by the muscle pad just below the 
elbow, or by lifting the forearm and shifting it 
along. When the desk is low, these sideward move- 
ments are made chiefly at the shoulder joint, and 
therefore by muscles at the shoulder. When the 
desk is high so that the elbow is held some distance 
from the body, they are due in considerable meas- 
ure to rotation at the elbow. It is evident that as 
compared with shifting the position of the elbow 
the rotation of the forearm about a pivot is the 
more economical, since in this latter movement 
time is not taken to interrupt the movement by 
lifting the arm. If this is true it has a bearing on 
the relation between the position of the paper and 
that of the arm. The best relation is one in which 
the forearm is at right angles to the line of writing. 
If we assume that the arm carries the hand 
along the Kne while the fingers form the letters, 
the finger and arm movements may still work to- 
gether in one of two ways. Either the one may 
alternate with the other or the two may go on 
simultaneously. The alternating relation is one 
frequently seen in the writing of young children, 
but it is by no means confined to them. One 
frequently sees children and older people write 
with the hand in a given position until the fingers 
become so cramped that they can progress no 

12 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

further, when the arm is lifted and the hand is 
carried to a new position. According to the other 
method the hand and arm progress along the 
line during the formation of the letters, and it 
is not necessary to readjust the relation between 
them at frequent intervals. 

In the writing movement of some persons 
another movement cooperates to carry the hand 
along the line. This is a side-to-side movement 
about the wrist joint. Such a movement is in- 
dicated in the tracer record when the line of the 
record slants downward sharply while the word or 
group of letters is being written, and then takes a 
backward and upward course in the readjustment 
preparatory to writing the next word. The down- 
ward slant is produced by the rotation of the wrist 
to right and the upward slant by its return to the 
original position at the beginning of the word. 

The arm not only carries the hand along the 
line, but also, in the arm-movement writing, has 
a share in the formation of the letters. The move- 
ment of the arm in this case is made chiefly by a 
rotation in the ball and socket joint at the shoul- 
der, and is produced by the shoulder muscles. The 
terms which are sometimes used to describe this 
type of movement convey a false impression. 
Both the terms "forearm movement" and ''mus- 

n 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

cular movement" make it appear that the move- 
ment is produced by muscles in the forearm, but 
a little examination will show that, in the arm 
movement, these muscles merely serve as a pas- 
sive rest for the arm, and that thsy are active only 
in producing movements of the wrist and fingers. 
It is clear, if we examine the work of the fingers, 
that there is division of labor among them also. 
The pen is not grasped by all the fingers, but by 
the first two fingers and the thumb. This is not 
the way the child naturally grasps it. The earliest 
/and most fundamental method of grasping such 
/an object is to fold the fingers about it without us- 
ing the thumb. The infant and the monkey grasp 
in this way. The next most natural method is to 
bring the tips of all the fingers together in opposi- 
tion to the thtmib. Monkeys and young infants 
never handle things in this way. To bring two of 
the fingers in opposition to the thumb and to use 
the others to support the hand is a still more diffi- 
cult and complex thing to do. It has been foimd 
by experiment that young children do not readily 
move one finger in isolation from the others, as, 
tor example, in striking successively the notes of a 
piano. They tend rather to tap with all at once. 
The use of a pen or pencil in the ordinary way 
is difficult, then, because it involves separating 
14 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

the action of some of the fingers from that of 
the others and because it involves the united 
action of these fingers and the thumb. This con- 
clusion is supported also by the anatomy of the 
muscle and nerve groups which govern the 
movements of the fingers and thumb. The chief 
muscles which move the fingers and thumb are 
located in the forearm — not in the fingers as 
is often assumed. The nerve cells which control 
the fingers form a group which are naturally as- 
sociated in their action, and the nerve cells which 
control the thumb form another group. This 
fact explains why the coordination between fin- 
gers and thumb is so difficult. 

Whether or not the letters are formed by the 
movements of the fingers, then, they have a dis- 
tinct function to perform since two of them have 
the office of supporting the hand while the other 
two, with the thumb, grasp the pen. When these 
latter also contribute a large share toward the 
formation of the letters, the adjustment of 
the movements to one another becomes delicate 
and complicated. The matter has been studied 
by an Italian investigator, Obici,^ who invented 

1 G. Obici, Ricerche sulla Fisiolgia della Scrittura. Rivista 
sperimentale di frenitica e medicina legale della alienazioni 
mentale. 1897, 23, 623 and 870. 

15 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

an instmment which he calls a ^'graphograph." 
The de\dce consists in a pen to which are at- 
tached three levers against which the thumb and 
first two fingers press. The pressure which they 
exert is transmitted pneumatically to delicately 
adjusted pointers. By means of this instrument 
we can measure exactly the actions of the fingers 
which are presented to ordinary observ^ation less 
precisely. 

A succession of strokes of various kinds — up- 
ward and downward, oblique and upright, curved 
to the right or left or straight — presents the 
different combinations of movements in continu- 
ally changing order. Each component movement 
must be made at the proper time and with the 
proper amount of force or the stroke will be dis- 
torted. For example, a downward stroke is made 
mainly by the pressure of the first finger against 
the pen, while the thumb and second finger 
guide. If additional pressure is exerted by the 
second finger the line will deviate to the left. To 
produce a cur\'e such as that of the downward 
stroke of the c there must be an excess pressure 
exerted first by the second finger and then by 
the thumb. \Mien the stroke reaches the bottom 
the first finger must relinquish the chief role, 
which then passes to the thumb. If the next up- 
i6 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

ward stroke forms the first stroke of an e, for 
example, the middle finger first gives way and 
then presses against the thumb to form the loop 
at the top. On the other hand, if the next letter 
is the m, the second finger exerts a somewhat 
stronger pressure during the upward stroke and 
then releases it at the top. Such is the ever- 
shifting balance of forces by which the appar- 
ently simple writing movement proceeds. It is 
not to be wondered at that the child's pen runs 
off the track, and the precision of the adult writer 
is only to be ascribed to the wonderful efficiency 
of an act which has become a habit through long 
practice. 

This analysis of the manner in which the com- 
ponent finger movements are coordinated in pro- 
ducing the letters furnishes the explanation 
of the fact that arm-movement writing always 
tends toward an angular style. The upward and 
downward movements can very well be made by 
the oscillation of the arm, but the complex 
curves which compose the letter forms are more 
easily produced by the fingers. 

The movements which have been described 
are sufficient to produce a succession of letters 
and words. An additional movement is often em- 
ployed, however, as a corrective. As the hand 
17 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

moves across the page with the elbow as center 
of rotation, the direction in which the fingers 
point is constantly changing. At the right end 
of the line they point much more toward the 
right than at the left end. The effect of this 
is to make the letters slant more toward the 
right as the hand progresses along the line. 
This error may be compensated for in more than 
one way, but, as Professor Judd has pointed out, 
some writers make the correction by means of an 
additional movement. It may be easily deter- 
mined by the reader for himself that if a series 
of strokes are made with the hand turned over 
toward the right side and then another series 
are made with the hand turned with the palm 
down, the second series is more nearly vertical 
then the first. This turning of the hand toward 
the left so that the palm faces downward is called 
pronation, and it will be readily seen that it is 
suited to correct the overslant of the letters at 
the right at the end of the line. 

We have completed the list of the movements 
which combine directly to form the writing co- 
ordination, but it is evident, on a moment's con- 
sideration, that we have not exhausted the list 
of bodily adjustments which are necessary to 
the activity. The body is held erect to furnish 
i8 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

support to the arm. The left hand holds the 
paper and moves it from time to time and the 
left arm steadies and supports the body. Finally, 
the eyes and head are adjusted to the perception 
of the characters which are being formed. We 
shall see that many important practical ques- 
tions are concerned with the maintenance of a 
healthful posture and the avoidance of eye- 
strain. 

The fact that the eyes are adjusted to the per- 
ception of what is being written calls attention to 
the fact that there are other elements in writ- 
ing beside the mere muscular movements. These 
are the sensations and perceptions which serve as 
a guide and standard for the movement. 

Writing also involves control sensations and 
language ideas 

The guidance or control of the writing move- 
ment by vision is particularly prominent in the 
early stages of learning. The adult can write 
blindfolded nearly as well as with his eyes open. 
The only features of the writing which suffer 
noticeably are the size, spacing, and alinement. 
The child, however, is largely dependent upon 
his sense of sight for the correct formation of the 
letters as well as for the control of the writing in 
19 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

regard to these more general aspects. In the adult 
the immediate control of the details of the ac- 
tivity has been largely assumed by the sen- 
sations of movement and the pressure sensations. 
The importance of these latter may be very well 
demonstrated by writing with a pen which is so 
constructed that the pressure of the pen against 
the paper is not perceptible. Under such condi- 
tions the writing suffers not only in alinement 
and spacing, but also in the formation of the 
letters. This is particularly true when the eyes 
are closed. When the eyes are open the adult 
writer can in a measure compensate for the loss 
of the sensations of pressure by making a closer 
inspection than usual of the movement of the 
pen. 

We may conceive of the pressure and movement 
sensations in writing as being not yet organized 
in the experience of the young child. That is, he 
does not yet know with any assurance how it 
feels to write a certain letter or word, but must 
rely upon his eye to inform him whether or not he 
is doing as he intends. As he writes more, these 
sensations become organized. Certain of them, 
following each other in certain order, come to re- 
present particular letters or words. This seems 
always to occur when writing becomes fluent 

20 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

and easy. The practical application of this fact 
is that the child must write a great deal and at 
a sufficient speed for the successive sensations 
of movement and pressure to become associated 
with one another, and with the visual forms 
which they represent. 

But writing is not merely the production on 
paper of certain forms. These forms have a mean- 
ing, and writing is for the purpose of expressing 
this meaning. In writing, as in reading, one says 
over more or less completely to himself the words 
which are being written, and the word images 
are the symbols of ideas. The writer starts out 
with an idea which he wishes to express. This 
idea is represented by groups of words imaged 
more or less clearly as heard or spoken, or both. 
These word images then call into being the ap- 
propriate writing movements. 

Eow the mental process becomes simplified through 
practice 
In the manner of the connection between the 
idea and the movements of writing, there are im- 
portant changes in the course of development. 
As^ has been said, to the practiced writer the 
writing movement seems to follow perfectly 
naturally upon the idea to be expressed, but in 



21 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

the experience of the child there is a chain of in- 
termediate processes. One may get some idea of 
the process through which the child must go by 
examining his own experience in using a type- 
writer. Even if one is proficient in the use of 
this machine, the learning process is recent 
enough so that it can probably be recalled. Start- 
ing with the idea, one in the early stages of prac- 
tice has to form definitely in his mind the words 
which express the idea. The phraseology is 
thought out more clearly in advance than in the 
more familiar processes of speaking or writing. 
The case is like that of a person who learns a 
foreign language as an adult, but who, instead of 
putting his thought directly into the foreign 
words, thinks them in his own tongue and then 
translates. 

The next step after clearly formulating our 
ideas in words is to spell the words out. One does 
not realize how automatic the process of spelling 
becomes in ordinary handwriting until he tries 
to write by the less familiar process. He has to 
think out the sequence of the letters as seen on 
the printed page, or as pronounced orally, and 
then follow this sequence in the letters on the 
keyboard. Then each movement which must be 
made in order to write the successive letters must 

22 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

be thought and made separately. Finally, after 
the movement is made, it is given a parting 
thought to make sure it was the one which was 
intended. 

It is not surprising that by the time these pro- 
cesses have been gone through, the thought con- 
nection has been lost. So it must be with the 
child who is in the early stages of learning to 
write. He must go through the same stages of 
anticipating the words he is to write, the spelling 
of these words, and something of the details of 
the form of the letters and of the position of the 
hand, the movements, etc., by which the letters 
are produced. Hence the well-known fact that 
young children cannot express their thoughts 
fluently by writing. The mechanics of the writing 
process stand in the forefront of the attention and 
interrupt the flow of thought. As practice pro- 
ceeds, these steps follow one another more rap- 
idly and more closely so that they interrupt the 
thought process less. The writing process be- 
comes more nearly automatic — that is, it be- 
comes capable of being carried on without the 
direction of attention. The attention can then 
be occupied more fully with the meaning which 
is to be expressed. 

There is a certain time when the child must be 
23 



THE TEACHING OF Hx\NDWRITING 

thinking chiefly of the formation of the letters 

and the mechanics of the process, but this stage in 
learning may be prolonged beyond the time when 
it is necessary or desirable. A person may have 
J the mechanics of writing highly developed, but 
"^ not be able to use it efficiently in the expression 
of his thought. It sometimes occurs that a per- 
son can write very excellently when it is purely 
a formal matter, but uses an inferior "hand" 
when he is writing a letter. On the other hand, 
it sometimes happens that a person with a halt- 
ing, uncertain movement develops fluency and 
case when he grows accustomed to the use of 
writing to express his thoughts. 

The opposite danger of releasing attention too 
early from the mechanics of writing or the de- 
tails of form is also present. Generally speaking, 
improvements in the character of the movement 
or the form of the letters cease when one no 
longer exercises a critical super^'ision over the 
process. Mere practice does not bring improve- 
ment. The pupil should early begin to use writ- 
ing as a means of expression of meaning, but 
there should also be practice periods when the 
attention is directed to the improvement of the 
habit until the habit has reached the degree of 
perfection which is thought desirable. 
24 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

The movement becomes organized with practice 

From the point of view of the thought or mean- 
ing side of writing then, we have fomid that writ- 
ing becomes increasiagly automatic with prac- 
tice. The attention is freed from the details of 
the movement. From the point of view of the 
movement, this process consists in a more 
thorough organization of the elements of the co- 
ordination. In the first place, excess movements 
become eliminated. When the child begins to 
write, the nervous energy is diffused throughout 
a large part of the body. The face is contorted, 
the feet are twisted about, the left hand is tightly 
clasped, and the body is bent. The same phe- 
nomenon may be observed in the learning of the 
adult, as, for example, when in learning to ride a 
bicycle he grips the handlebar with unnecessary 
force. Out of the excess supply of movements, 
the child must learn to use only such as produce 
the desired movements of the pen. 

The elimination of useless movements, or the 
selection of appropriate ones, is one of the funda- 
mental processes in motor learning. A practical 
question which may be raised concerning it is 
whether the result can best be reached by empha- 
sizing the movements which are to be selected or 
25 



THE TEACHING OF H.\XDWRITING 

those which are to be eliminated. In general, it 
is much better to fix attention on the movements 
which are to be made, and allow the superfluous 
movements to drop out of themselves. It is a 
familiar fact that the bicycle rider avoids the 
ditch best by keeping his attention on the path. 
The nen'ous energ}' is automatically withdrawn 
from the channels leading to the muscles not con- 
cerned when the nen'ous channels to the appro- 
priate muscles become more open. Directions 
should be positive, then, rather than negative. 
The pupil should be shown what to do rather 
than what not to do. The only exception to this 
rule appears when the pupil ha^ fallen into bad 
habits which need to be broken up. Then it may 
be necessar}* to call attention to the thing to be 
avoided. 

The appropriate movements become selected 
from among the great number of superfluous 
movements as they become organized into modes 
of action which produce the desired result. The 
ners'ous energ}* is at first widely diflused because 
the ner\-e cells which control the groups of mus- 
cles which are associated successively and simul- 
taneously in the writing movement have not be- 
come so connected that the ners'ous energy- finds 
free outlet through them. The organization of 

20 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

these nerve centers can proceed only through 
practice — that is, through trying to make the 
movement which will produce the forms set be- 
fore the child as a model. There is no royal road 
to this end. The child must learn by the slow 
method of trial and success. He knows roughly 
what form he desires to make, but does not know 
how to go about it to make it, except in a general 
way. He has no recourse but to make the attempt. 
He succeeds partly because he has learned to 
make movements somewhat similar in the past, 
but his success is not complete. He now tries to 
improve on his first attempt. If he fails, he tries 
again. If he succeeds, he may be able to repeat 
his performance. But he is not able to anticipate 
the method by which success is reached. He can 
only retain the measure of success he has attained 
by blind trial until further trials bring him nearer 
his goal. Practice or drill, therefore, is the only 
means of learning to write. The essentials of 
good drill will be discussed in the chapter on 
pedagogy. 

As the movement becomes organized the attention 

comes to comprehend larger units 

When the child first essays to write the letters 

which are before him (and which compose the 

27 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

words which he uses in his spoken language), his 
attention is absorbed, as we have seen, in repro- 
ducing the forms. In striving to copy the forms 
of the letters, he keeps their appearance in 
mind as well as he can and watches the letter 
which he is making in order to see when it devi- 
ates from the model and to bring back the stroke 
when it goes astray. He follows the stroke bit by 
bit with the eye, and it is his eye which seems 
mainly to "control" the stroke. After he has 
made the various letters over and over he gradu- 
ally learns how it feels to make them, as has 
already been said, and he finds it no longer 
necessary to follow the stroke minutely. 

Now is the time when the child can hold in 
mind several strokes or letters at a time. He can 
safely assume that the motor habit under the 
control of the sensations of movement and pres- 
siure will execute the details of the letters. As 
the child thus holds in mind several letters or a 
word at a time, it comes about that the individual 
strokes are subordinated to the more general 
features of the writing. Thus he can pay more 
attention to the uniformity in size, slant, etc., of 
the letters. It may be seen, by comparing the 
writing of children with that of adults, that chil- 
dren commonly form the letters more carefully, 
28 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

but that the writing as a whole is more uneven 
or ragged. 

Another result of this broadening of the scope 
of the attention concerns the movement. The 
movement becomes more uniform, or, in other 
words, it acquires greater rhythm. The succes- 
sive strokes tend to be made at equal intervals of 
time as though to music. This undoubtedly ex- 
plains much of the deviation from correct form 
in the writing of adults. Parts of letters which 
would take more time if made correctly are 
hurried over to avoid breaking the regular beat 
of the strokes. At the same time, rhythmic move- 
ment has a great advantage on the score of ease 
and rapidity. We shall consider its practical im- 
portance again in the chapter on pedagogy. 

Learning to write is conditioned partly by the 
stages of development at diferent ages 

We have been considering those features of the 
formation of the writing habit which are inherent 
in the learning process itself and which are the 
same whatever the age or the degree of maturity 
of the learner. Certain questions regarding the 
time and manner of teaching writing, however, 
require for their solution a knowledge of the ca- 
pacity of the child at different ages for complex 
29 



THE TEACHING OF H.\NDWRITING 

and delicately adjusted movement. Systems of 
teaching which are found to be suitable to youths 
or adults in business colleges are often applied 
without sufficient modihcation to children in the 
primary grades. Such procedure results in a 
waste of energ}- and effort. 

The child's ability to make precise, complex, 
and rapid movements increases continuously 
from the first year at least to youth. For practi- 
cal purposes, however, certain di%ision points 
may be designated which mark changes in the 
child's attitude toward his movements and an 
increase in capacity more rapid than at other 
times. One such point is of particular significance 
for the teaching of writing because it falls witlnn 
the period of the grades. 

~ Students of the child from difierent points of 
\-iew have iudependently fixed on the age of nine 
or thereabouts as a time when the child becomes 
willing and able to apply to his movements some 
outward 5:-r,i.::d. In his play, for example, the 
child now sets an aim to his movements. Before 
this, they were free, and enjoyed merely for them- 
selves: or they were dramatic or sjinbolic in 
character. Xow. the child not only runs because 
he enjoys the experience or pretends that he is an 
Indian or what not, but he runs to excel some- 
30. 



CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 

body else or even to make a record. So also in 
drawing he ceases to make merely rough sketches 
which represent but do not resemble objects, and 
makes an effort to portray more accurately their 
form and spatial relations. A brief study made 
by the author indicates also that the faciHty of 
movement in making simple upward and down- 
ward strokes with a pencil increases more rapidly 
at this time than during the rest of the child's 
school life. 

The methods and aims of training should take 
account of these facts and require more of the 
child in the intermediate than in the primary 
grades. A system which sets the same standard 
of speed or accuracy before children in the dif- 
ferent stages is fundamentally wrong. The appli- 
cation of this principle, and of the others which 
have been set forth in this chapter, is a mat- 
ter to be discussed more particularly in the 
following pages. . 



Ill 

THE PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF WRITING 

In the preceding chapter we saw that one does 
not write with the arm alone. The body fur- 
nishes a base or support for the arm, the left hand 
is often engaged in holding the paper, the eyes 
rotate and the lenses of the eyes are focused upon 
the page. These facts are of particular signifi- 
cance because, first, the position of the body may 
be such as to distort the skeleton, particularly 
the spine, causing a permanent deviation from 
the normal adjustment; and, second, the way in 
which the eyes have to be adjusted in certain 
positions of the paper or kinds of writing is re- 
garded by many as injurious to the sight. We 
shall at once consider the requirements of pos- 
ture and then the requirements of the hygiene of 
vision. 

The requirements of good posture and their 
consequences for writing 

The requirements of good posture can be put 
in a few words. The deviations from good pos- 
32 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

ture and the causes of these deviations are some- 
what more complex. We shall take up the im- 
portant features of good posture, discussing first 
the positive requirements, then the kinds of de- 
viation which appear when the child writes, and 
finally the conditions of writing — the position 
of paper, slant of writing, etc. —which affect 
posture favorably or unfavorably. 

Before entering upon this discussion, a word 
should be said to prevent a too rigid application 
of the principles of posture. Perhaps the danger 
is rather in the opposite direction, but it is well 
to know that when we allow what seems to be oc- 
casional lapses from what is ideally best, we are 
not compromising with our principles, but are 
applying another equally valid principle. This 
principle is that it is not ideal for the child to 
maintain any position whatever, except one of 
relaxation, for a considerable length of time. We 
must allow and encourage frequent changes of 
position, and the younger the child the more fre- 
quent the changes must be. 

The danger to avoid is that the child shall 
deviate habitually in one particular direction. 
This causes maladjustment of the bones, or com- 
pression of some of the organs, or both. But it is 
perfectly natural for the child at one moment to 
33 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

take a position which deviates in one direction 
from what may be considered abstractly the 
normal or ideal, and at the next moment the 
position which deviates in the other direction. 
We may define and use the ideal or normal, 
then, as the posture about which the child may 
deviate in several directions, but from which 
he should^ not deviate permanently in any 
direction. 

The first requirement of good posture is that 
the body and head be held erect. This rule has 
reference to the forward and backward bending 
of head or body. With reference to the body, it 
means first that the back shall not be rounded 
out, thus compressing the lungs, stomach, etc., 
and causing the protrusion of the abdominal 
wall. The result of this position is restriction of 
the depth of breathing, interference with the 
process of digestion, congestion of blood in the 
abdomen, and a lowering of the tone of the mus- 
cles of the abdominal wall. 

A second defect consists in leaning either for- 
ward or backward — usually forward — so that 
the center of gravity of the body lies outside the 
base formed by the pelvis. In such a posture 
the position of the body must be maintained by 
continual and unnecessary muscular tension — 

34 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

a waste of nervous energy. These two defects 
may exist in combination. 

These defects of posture may be avoided in 
large measure by requiring the child to sit well 
back in the chair, by seeing that the feet rest flat 
on the floor, by having the seat at such a height 
that the feet rest on the floor and the thighs are 
level, and by having the seat project about three 
inches under the desk. These requirements are 
generally recognized. Another requirement is 
equally important, which is that the desk top 
should slant toward the writer. This require- 
ment affects the position of the head as well as 
that of the body. When the paper on which one 
is writing lies horizontally, there is a very strong 
impulse to bend the head and body forward in 
order to prevent the unpleasant strain resulting 
from turning the eyes down in their sockets 
through a considerable angle. It may also be 
that the impulse is due to the unrecognized mo- 
tive of seeking to look at the paper perpendicu- 
larly rather than at an angle. That the impulse 
to bend forward is present is indisputable, and 
that it is lessened by tilting the desk forward 
fifteen degrees or more is a fact of observation. 

The fault of bending the head forward and 
the remedy have been mentioned. Some forward 

35 



THF TFACHINC OF HANDWRITING 

can K^ laid d. > ved 

. - .^y that the 

v;..-.^.. ... .> ::.;..:.. -. .;ai .... .^cad \> ^v-r 

thivniir^. . ' c . .' -Ttv-m-v degrees f:. ; 

V. /. , -c ." : :"■: ■■- -'^ re- 

^. ..^ . . . ...-.^.'^ :■■..:-.;- of 

The ; ^ -tiirte consbt in 

V ' u Side or the 

, : ^ .\iv in ^ther 



direction. 



bv 



th' 



>i>ts in 

. . "C::r is, o£ 

^ : wiU re- 

iri any 

<of 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

the effect of the position of the paper and the 
slant of the writing upon the head position. 

On the bearing of the position of the paper and 
(^f the slant of the writing on the position of the 
head, there has been a great deal of controversy. 
It has been held on the one hand, that any posi- 
tion of the paper except one in which the line of 
writing is parallel to the edge of the desk, and any 
deviation of the letters from the vertical, cause 
bending and twisting of the head and even of the 
body. Those who uphold this view believe that 
there is a strong tendency to bring the head into 
such a position that the line connecting the two 
eyes is parallel to the line of writing, so that as 
one looks along the line the eyes move merely 
in a horizontal and not in an oblique direction. 
This assumption is based on the so-called Wundt- 
Lamansky law that the eyes move most freely in 
a horizontal or vertical direction and less readily 
in an oblique direction. 

Measurements made by other investigators, 
however, indicate that when the line of writing 
is tilted, the eyes are not as a matter of fact 
brought into such a position that the line joining 
them is parallel to the line of writing, but that 
this line tends to be perpendicular to the main 
downward strokes of the letters. This is ex- 

37 



THE TEACHING OF H.\NDWRITING 

plained as due to a tendency to sight along the 
main strokes of the letters. The movement of 

the hand along the Hne in writing and the conse- 
quent horizontal movement of the eyes are so 
slow that it is a question whether the Wundt- 
Lamansky law appHes in this case. Whether it 
is due to the tendency to sight along the main 
strokes of the letters or not. it is a fact noted by 
a number of investigators that the maia strokes 
of the letters take a direction which is approxi- 
mately perpendicular to the edge of the desk 
when the writer faces it directly. This fact will be 
referred to in the discussion of slant, 
p While the theoretical discussions of the mat- 
ter, then, are not entirely conclusive, it is clear 
that the e^'idence is as much against as for the 
argument for a straight front position of the 
paper and vertical writing when that argument 
implies that any other position or kind of writing 
necessarily causes an unhygienic posture. The 
measurement of the degree of de\'iation from 
good posture among children who write vertically 
and those who write with a slant presents, if 
we accept the figures at their face value, rather 
stronger e\-idence in favor of vertical writing and 
the position of the paper in which the lower edge 
is parallel to the edge of the desk. One investiga- 
38 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

tor, ^ for example, found spinal curvature among 
2.1 per cent of 1630 vertical writers and 3.1 per 
cent of 1436 who wrote with a slant. 

A number of considerations are to be kept in 
mind interpreting these figures. In the first place 
the teachers of vertical writing undoubtedly 
paid more attention to the posture of their pupils 
than did the others, since vertical writing was 
introduced with the purpose of improving posture 
clearly in mind. In spite of this fact, two inves- 
tigators reported finding classes of vertical writ- 
ers whose posture was very poor, and classes of 
slant writers with entirely correct posture. Fur- 
thermore the slant which was used by these 
pupils was presumably that used commonly 
at that time and place — about 1890 in Ger- 
many. In the figures given by one investigator, 
the average angle of the writing in two classes 
was forty-three and fifty-seven degrees respec- 
tively, while the average for a third class was be- 
tween these two. Such a degree of slant would 
now be considered excessive, at least in Ameri- 
can schools, and would rarely be found. 

If we allow for the difference in the attention 
paid to posture of the pupils, then, and for the dif- 

1 Cited in L. Burgerstein and A. Netolitzky, Eandhuch 
der Schulhygiene, Jena, 1895, G. Fischer, p. 273. 

39 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

ference in the amount of slant of the writing, the 
significance in these figures becomes small. Fur- 
thermore, when the measurements for the differ- 
ent school grades are taken separately, it appears 
that the greatest difference in posture between 
those who write vertically and those who write 
with a slant existed in the first and second grades. 
It is precisely in these grades that the advantage 
of a slant is least. In the first two or three grades, 
then, considerations of posture have some bear- 
ing upon the kind of writing to be taught, but in 
the other grades it is of very slight importance. 
A slight degree of slant does not have sufficient 
influence upon position to counterbalance other 
reasons for a slant. What these reasons are we 
shall see in the next chapter. 

We have been considering posture from the 
standpoint of hygiene. It may not be out of 
place to remark here that good posture is of im- 
portance also for its influence on the writing. 
When the body is held erect, it forms a firm sup- 
port for the arm and at the same time allows the 
arm greater freedom of movement than when 
the body slouches. This is sufficiently evident. 

Good posture is a habit and one which needs to 
be built up by constant drill. All the evidence 
points to the fact that, while the proper arrange- 
40 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING I 

merit of the seat and desk, and the position of 
the paper on the desk make a good posture easier, 
they do not, of themselves, insure it. If bad 
habits are once formed in this respect, it is diffi- 
cult to break them, but a little attention to the 
matter in the earlier grades will suffice to form 
right habits. A necessary precaution is to avoid 
undue fatigue or restlessness by not requiring the 
young child to hold the same posture too long. 
For details regarding seats and desks, the reader 
is referred to any good book on school hygiene. ^ 

Requirements of hygiene of the eyes 

Besides posture, the teacher of writing is con- 
cerned with the eyes and their hygiene. It has 
been asserted that improper conditions of writ- 
ing cause eye troubles, particularly myopia or 
short-sightedness . 

Several requirements for the avoidance of in- 
jury to the eyes by writing may be made. In the 
first place, the two eyes should be at the same 
distance from the point to which they are di- 
rected. This is sometimes not the case when the 
paper is placed to one side. For example, if the 
paper is on the right of a middle line and the head 
faces directly forward, the writing is nearer to the 
right eye than to the left. This condition is often 
41 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

avoided unconsciously by the writer by turning 
and bending the head to the right. This, of 
course, introduces another faulty condition. The 
remedy is to place the paper approximately in 
front of the writer. The left end of the Hne may 
then be a little to the left of the middle and the 
right end to the right. In this case the head may 
turn a Uttle to the left at the beginning of the 
line and to the right side toward the end. It is 
only when the position taken is preponderantly 
on one side or the other of the straight position 
that there is danger. 

The reason that harm results from the unequal 
distance of the writing from the two eyes is that 
it causes nervous strain. The nerve centers which 
control the adjustment of the two eyes are so 
intimately connected that the eyes instinctively 
converge and focus upon the same point. If an 
object which is close at hand is nearer to one eye 
than to the other, that eye must have a shorter 
focus. For distant vision this difference is so 
slight as to be negligible, but for reading or writ- 
ing it is important. Considerable strain is put 
upon the eyes in any case to keep them focused 
upon objects within eighteen inches, and when 
conditions require that the eyes be focused upon 
points imequally distant, the strain is increased. 
42 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

The second requirement is that the strain inci- 
dent to constant near vision be minimized by not 
allowing the eyes to be held too near the paper. 
The distance will be limited, of course, by the 
size of the child, the height of the desk, etc. If 
the child is sitting erect, if the desk is at such a 
height that the elbow is about three inches from 
the body, and if the right forearm rests with most 
of its length upon the desk at an angle of about 
sixty degrees with the edge, the eyes will be as far 
from the writing as good writing conditions per- 
mit. In the adult the distance under these con- 
ditions is about sixteen to twenty inches. For 
the child the following distances may be taken 
as a minimum for the grades designated: primary, 
ten inches; intermediate, twelve inches; gram- 
mar, fourteen inches. Of course it would be 
desirable to keep the writing at still greater dis- 
tance from the eyes, but the size of the child 
places limits upon the distances which are prac- 
ticable. Those which are given as standards im- 
ply that the child sits erect. 

Certain conditions produce a tendency for the 
child not to sit erect, but to lean forward and to 
bring the eyes closer to the paper. One of these 
conditions, which has already been referred to in 
discussing posture, is the slope of the desk. A desk 

43 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

top which is tilted through an angle of at least 
fifteen degrees is an important aid to the main- 
tenance of good posture, at least in the primary 
grades. It is important also that the writing be 
large enough for the child to see easily at the re- 
quired distance. A safe rule is to require that the 
one-space letters be an eighth of an inch in height. 
For the primary grades, the requirements of the 
movements make necessary larger letters. We 
are here considering only the requirements of 
vision. 

Some investigators have found that 2.1 per 
cent more of those who write with a slant are 
short-sighted than of those who write vertically 
and that the former hold the eyes from one to 
two inches closer to the paper than do the latter. 
The remarks which were made on similar results 
in discussing posture apply here also. We do not 
know what the other conditions of the writing 
were. Presumably the teachers of vertical writ- 
ing exercised more care about posture than did 
the others. We do know that the slant was ex- 
cessive, and that in many cases, at least, the 
paper was placed considerably to the right of the 
middle position. Good hygienic conditions for the 
eye can be secured without resorting to vertical 
writing. 

44' 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

The character of the surface of the paper, the 
sort of mark which is made by the pen or pencil, 
and the arrangement of the lighting also affect 
the amount of eye-strain incident to writing. 
The paper should not have a glazed surface — 
that is, should not reflect enough light to present 
a shiny appearance. If a pencil is used, the paper 
should be rough enough to take a good mark. 
The pen or pencil mark should offer sufficient 
contrast to the paper to be easily seen. The light 
should come from above or from the left and 
should be diffused daylight. 

The hygiene of movement 

Besides maintaining correct posture and avoid- 
ing conditions which produce eye-strain, the 
teacher of handwriting must consider the possi- 
bility of a nervous strain resulting from the hand 
movement and its conditions. A movement 
which is not suited to the child may cause an un- 
due expenditure of nervous energy in the same 
way as improper conditions may cause eye- 
strain and consequently undue expenditure of 
nervous energy. 

We may begin with the general question: 
What sort of movement is suited to the young 
child, or what changes in the type of movement 

45 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

take place with the growth and development of 
the child? An answer to these questions which 

has been widely accepted, and which has had a 
distinct efiect upon practice, is expressed in the 
doctrine of fundamental and accessor move- 
ments. This doctrine has been invoked as an 
argument against certain of the kindergarten oc- 
cupations, such as threading beads and sewing or 
any use of the hands in fine work. The child 
should, it is urged, use the large free movements 
and the muscles of the trunk and defer the finer 
hand movements until some time after he enters 
school. Ob^'iously this doctrine has a bearing on 
writing and must be examined more closely. 

If we seek to determine by a study of the writ- 
ings on the subject just what is the distinction 
between fundamental and accessory movements, 
we meet with a diversity of interpretations. One 
common assumption seems to be, however, that 
fundamental movements are those which are old 
in the histor\- of the race — such, for example/ 
as walking; while accessor^' movements are those 
which have been acquired in more recent stages 
of evolution. We may assume that the older 
movements are, to some extent at least, instinc- 
tive, while the adjustments more recently ac- 
quired have not an instinctive character, but 
46 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

must be learned by each individual. If this is 
the interpretation to be made, it is obvious that 
fundamental (instinctive) movements are easier 
for the child to make. But this does not solve the 
problem, for it is obvious that our task is not 
merely to allow instinctive movements to de- 
velop, but to teach the child movements which 
are not instinctive; for example, handwriting. 
What we wish to, know, then, is whether there is 
any principle which governs the order in which 
new combinations of movements may be taught 
the child. 

Our doctrine meets this problem by the further 
assumptions, first, that fundamental movements 
are movements of large muscles, or large move- 
ments, while accessory movements are move- 
ments of small muscles, or small movements; 
and second, that fundamental movements are 
central, that is, of the trunk or toward the trunk, 
while accessory movements are peripheral, that 
is, toward the extremities. The conclusion from 
these assumptions would be that the child should 
make only or mainly movements of the large 
muscles (or larger movements) and central move- 
ments. 

Interpreting "fundamental" in these senses 
we may examine the vaHdity of the theory by 
47 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

inquiring whether the child's instinctive move- 
ments are wholly or chiefly fimdamental, or 
whether his spontaneous movements are at first 
fundamental and become only gradually acces- 
sory with his increasing age. 

A study of the matter will serve to show that 
many of the child's early instinctive movements 
employ neither the large nor the central muscles. 
The earliest clearly instinctive movement is 
sucking, which involves both small and periph- 
eral muscles. Another early reflex is the clasp- 
ing of the hand about an object touching the 
palm. This also involves peripheral and relatively 
small muscles. Soon there appear instinctive 
movements of facial expression and the adjust- 
ment of the eyes, as in following a moving object. 
The movements of the trunk in sitting, standing, 
and walking appear later than all of these. 

The same is true of the child's spontaneous 
movements, which are of special significance in 
this connection because they are the material 
out of which the new coordinations are formed. 
The child certainly makes spontaneous move- 
ments of the arms and legs and vocal cords as 
early as those of the trunk. And in the arms and 
legs themselves movements of the extremities — 
the fingers and toes and the wrists and ankles — 
48 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

are as prominent as the larger movements of the 
limbs. The movements are not, to be sure, co- 
ordinated; but we are not speaking of coordinated 
movements, for the movements of the limbs as 
a whole are not coordinated either. When the 
child begins to handle objects the very term we 
use to describe the act indicates the employment 
of the hand. If the rattle is waved to and fro by 
the arm, it is also grasped by the hand. When 
the child is excited, or is expressing an emotion 
for which he has no coordinated form of response, 
he may wave arms and legs aimlessly, but much 
of his time is spent in examining objects and hand- 
ling them, and in this he uses the peripheral 
and smaller muscles. There is, then, no warrant 
from the child's natural development in contend- 
ing that we must confine his activities to those 
which employ central or large muscles.^ 

Certain kinds of movements do, however, im- 
doubtedly cause nervous strain and fatigue for 
the child, and care should be exercised that his 

1 The fact that there is somewhat more improvement in 
rapidity of movement and in steadiness, which was deter- 
mined by the studies of Bryan (Amer. Jour, of Psychol, vol. 
V, p. 123) and Hancock (Ped. Sem. vol. ni, p. 9) is not con- 
clusive evidence of the earher maturing of the central muscles 
and nerve centers. The small amount of difference may very 
well be accounted for by the greater practice in the peripheral 
adjustments. 

49 



THE TEL\CHL\G OF H.\ND\YRITLNG 

movements he suited to his age and capacity. The 
development of the child's capacity for move- 
ment is not essentially difierent from that of the 
adult except that in the case of the child there is 
development of general oipacity as well as de- 
velopment of abUity in special forms of acti^'ity. 

Since the development of the child's general 
capacity in movement cannot be adequately 
described in terms of the fundamental-accessor}' 
movement theory, we must seek to deline it in 
other terms. Experimental e^•idence has clearly 
demonstrated that theie is marked development 
in movement in a number of respects. The stead- 
iness with which a child of six years can maintain 
any position is increased fourfold by the time he 
reaches the period of youth. Precision of move- 
ment is relatively dencient in the young child. 
In speed of movement there is an increase which 
is represented in tapping with the fingers by more 
than two a second. The ability to make a complex 
movement, such as tx^ing a knot, is noticeably de- 
ficient in the young child. The redeeming feature 
is that the child's ners'ous system is ver}' plastic 
so that he is capable of readily learning new forms 
of acti\-ity. 

The precaution which is necessar}' to obsers'e 
is that the child below the age of nine or ten be 

50 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

not required to make movements which are very 
precise, rapid, or complex, or which require great 
steadiness of adjustment. The reason that periph- 
eral movements are often injurious is not that 
they are peripheral, else we should have to pre- 
vent the child's using his hand, and thus gain- 
ing valuable training. The reason is rather that 
peripheral movements are commonly more pre- 
cise than are central movements. 

The reason that it is necessary to take pre- 
cautions in this matter is that the adult often 
does not realize that a movement which for him 
is rough and careless is for the child precise and 
careful. It is easy for the adult to realize the 
strain of attention and fatigue due to making ad- 
justments which are to him very precise, such as 
would be involved in making a fine mechanical 
drawing, adjusting the parts of a watch, or doing 
intricate embroidery. Yet the expert in these 
fields can work all day without undue fatigue. 
The feat of ordinary writing which an adult can 
carry on for hours is to the young child a task 
fatiguing both because of its newness, and be- 
cause the degree of precision which is required is 
high in relation to his ability. 

Every possible means should therefore be 
taken to minimize for the child the nervous 
51 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

strain of writing. In the lower grades, the writing 
period should come at a time when the child is 
not already fatigued. Too great precision should 
not be demanded. The writing materials should 
be such as to lighten the task and not increase 
its difficulty. A pen should not be used at 
all to begin with. The first pen used should be 
coarse. The penholder should be of some ma- 
terial which can be easily held in position, such 
as cork or soft rubber, and should be of medium 
size. The penholder which is used by the child in 
the primary grades should be smaller that that 
used by older children. The general rule is that 
the holder should not be so small that it cannot 
easily be kept from turning in the fingers, nor so 
large that the fingers cannot easily be bent in a 
natural manner. The surface of the paper should 
be hard enough so that the pen does not easily 
stick into it. 

Writer^ s cramp 

The writing habit should be so developed not 
only as to meet present demands, but also, if 
possible, as to avoid future trouble. The same 
provisions are necessar}^ to meet both require- 
ments, but the total effects of faulty methods are 
not always apparent for several years. The ex- 
52 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

treme condition resulting from much writing un- 
der bad conditions is writer's cramp. Bad condi- 
tions do not necessarily lead to this extreme, but 
the measures which have been found efficacious 
to prevent or care this disease will also prove 
serviceable in rendering writing easier and more 
efficient. 

Writer's cramp is a disease of the nervous sys- 
tem which affects writing by producing either 
the abnormal contraction or the paralysis of some 
of the muscles used in writing. In the most fre- 
quent case the muscles which flex the fingers be- 
come cramped when the individual who is suffer- 
ing from the malady tries to write. The spasm not 
only interferes with writing, but is very painful. 
Advanced cases of the disease are rarely cured. 
A significant fact is that the malady is most 
frequently found among professional penmen or 
calligraphers. The reason seems to be that these 
writers make exceedingly precise and delicate 
strokes. Very rapid writing long continued also 
brings on writer's cramp. 

While writer's cramp is an adult malady, it 
must be attacked not through curative but 
through preventive measures — that is, by train- 
ing the child in correct habits of writing. The cen- 
tral point of the whole matter is that the condi- 

53 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

tion which causes the trouble, and which is to be 
avoided, is too violent contraction of the muscles 
by which the pen is grasped, and by which 
the finger movements are made — provided the 
movements are made with the fingers. It is 
obvious to an observer of young children when 
they are writing that, contrary to the theory 
of fundamental and accessory movements, they 
contract too strongly the smaller muscles which 
control the fingers. The diffusion which appears 
as the child tries to make a complex and imaccus- 
tomed movement affects the lighter, more easily 
contracted muscles first. It becomes necessary, 
then, to counteract this tendency to over-use by 
laying emphasis upon the use of the movements 
of the arm. This measure of prevention and cor- 
rection was recommended by European physi- 
cians when no practical form of arm movement 
such as is now widely practiced in American 
schools was known to them. 

We have already seen that a rhythmical writ- 
ing movement is a characteristic of mature writ- 
ing, and has a beneficial effect upon the writing 
of children. A rhythmical, steady movement has 
also the advantage of being much less liable to 
cause cramping thanahasty, irregular one. Rhyth- 
mical movements are known to produce much 
54 



PHYSIOLOGY OF WRITING 

less fatigue than movements which are irregular. 
The various muscles operate together in a har- 
monious way, instead of one pulling against the 
other, and each one gets into the way of exerting 
just the required amount of force and no more. 
Other means of avoiding undue cramping of 
the fingers have already been referred to. They 
concern the materials which are used in writing, 
the pen, penholder, and paper. It is not necessary 
further to dwell upon them here. All these 
measures have the advantage not only of pre- 
venting a remote and not very probable malady, 
but they also affect very beneficially the child's 
present writing habit. 



IV 

* THE TEACHING OF H.\NDWRITING 

It has already been pointed out that writing is a 
habit mvolving manual skill. This habit must be 
developed in the same manner as any other such 
habit through the application of the prmciples 
of efficient learning. The learning of any such 
habit is dependent upon two phases of procedure. 
The jirst of tliese is the adoption of correct form, 
and the second the acquirement of the ability to 
execute the movement efficiently. 

Correct far ?}t in the urlilng movement ^ 
The adoption of correct form in the movement 
must not be confused with the production of good 
form in the letters. Correct form in movement 
refers to the more e\'ident outstanding features 
of the movement which may readily be observed 
and copied. It may refer to the positions which 
are held before the movement starts or after it is 
finished. It includes those adjustments which the 
learner may be shown or told how to make by 
virtue of the fact that he already possesses a cer- 
^6 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

tain amount of general control over his hands and 
body. In writing, form refers to such matters as 
penholding and the position of the hand, arm, 
and body. 

Good form is esteemed not only because it 
presents a better appearance than bad form, but 
also because it makes possible more efficient 
action. It represents the part of the activity in 
which the learner may profit by the experience of 
those who have learned before him. Much would 
be learned by each one for himself, but a good 
deal of any activity may be taught and not left 
to the learner to discover by chance. Any game 
of skill will furnish illustrations of this point. 
For example, in making a stroke in golf it is nec- 
essary, in order to insure accuracy of stroke, that 
the head and body be neither raised nor allowed 
to sway to the side. This principle may be easily 
grasped, and, by giving some attention to the 
matter, may be successfully applied. 

Penholding 

So in the case of writing, certain principles may 
be laid down governing form. First, in regard 
to the manner of holding the pen. Teachers of 
writing in the United States are coming to fairly 
close agreement as to what constitutes good form 
57 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

in penholding. The prescriptions which follow 
have been reached in a purely empirical way, 
without the use of scientific experimentation, but 
in the absence of such investigation we must rely 
upon experience and observation to guide our 
practice on such points of method as these. The 
orthodox method of holding the pen is to grasp 
the holder between the thumb and the first two 
fingers about an inch to an inch and a half from 
the pen point. The pen is held mainly between 
the thumb and the second finger, against which it 
rests opposite the first joint. The first finger rests 
upon the top of the pen and keeps it in place, par- 
ticularly in the downward movements. The holder 
also comes in contact with the hand at the base 
of the index finger. All the fingers are bent easily, 
each one from the middle to the little finger 
being bent slightly more than the one before it. 
The hand rests upon the two outside fingers. 

The mistakes which it is most important to 
avoid are holding the fingers too straight so that 
they are inflexible or bending them too much and 
grasping the pen too tightly. The thumb and the 
index finger particularly are apt to be bent so 
that the middle joints form a sharp angle. This, 
besides leading to cramping and fatigue, prevents 
flexibility. 

58 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

It is not asserted that this is the only manner 
of penholding by which legible and rapid writing 
can be produced. Many hold the pen between 
the first and second fingers, and this position has 
the advantage that the pen is held in place with- 
out any expenditure of effort or voluntary mus- 
cular contraction. Writers sometimes assume this 
position as a rehef from the fatigue caused by con- 
tinually making a movement in the same manner. 
The adoption of an alternative position as a means 
of relief by one in whom the writing habit is 
mature does not, however, justify the same pro- 
cedure on the part of the child in whom the habit 
is in the process of formation. It is first necessary 
that the habit of v/riting in one particular man- 
ner be well formed in order that the action may 
become easy and mechanical. The only modifi- 
cations which should be made are in the direction 
of adapting the standard form of movement to 
the individual peculiarities of the child. Radical 
changes made during the formative stages, un- 
less they are imperatively demanded by the fail- 
ure of the present method, only disorganize the 
movement and keep it in consciousness when it 
should be becoming automatic. Continual exper- 
imentation with the method of performing an act, 
except in the sense of gradual improvement in 
59 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

the details, has the same efifect upon progress as 
pulling up a plant by the roots has upon its 
growth. 

Experimentation is, of course, necessary to 
determine finally what the best form is, but it 
must be made with due deliberation, by the 
teacher or person in authority, and in such man- 
ner as not to disturb the children's half-formed 
habits. An experiment should take a child from 
the beginning and carry him through a consistent 
plan of training, and not, as has so often been the 
case, attempt a radical reorganization of his man- 
ner of writing three or four times in the course of 
his education, and leave him with no well-organ- 
ized habit at all. 

Related to the manner of holding the pen is the 
position of the hand. In fact, all the elements of 
position, ''movement, and posture are related to 
one another, and this must be kept in mind in 
order to appreciate some of the rules which are 
laid down. The chief question regarding the 
position of the hand as a whole is whether it 
should be allowed to turn over so that it rests 
upon the side, or whether it should be held in 
such a position that the wrist is level, or nearly 
level. The orthodox rule of writing teachers used 
to be: keep the wrist level; and the pupil was 
60 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

often required to keep a coin upon the wrist to 
insure that it did not turn over. This, in its 
extreme, is now pretty generally recognized to 
be an artificial requirement, and is considerably 
relaxed. 

The requirement of a level wrist is made in 
order to place the hand in such a position that it 
can easily slide upon the supporting fingers. This 
possibility of easy movement is necessary whether 
the extreme arm movement is used or not. If the 
hand rests over on the side, there is great danger 
that it shall remain stationar}^, while the fingers 
not only form the letters, but also produce the 
forward movement. In this case the hand be- 
comes cramped and the finger and arm move- 
ments alternate instead of working together 
simultaneously. Of course, in order that the arm 
movement ma}^ be used to form the letters, it is 
essential that the hand rest upon a base which 
permits it to sHde easily over the paper. If this 
general requirement is met, some latitude ma}- be 
allowed in the precise degree of inclination of the 
hand. To hold the hand so that the wrist is level 
requires a good deal of muscular effort due to the 
fact that in this position the two bones of the 
forearm, the radius and the ulna, are crossed. 
Furthermore, some variation in the degree of 
6i 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

inclination of the hand is desirable in order to 
make possible the movement of pronation which, 
as has already been pointed out, is useful in main- 
taining uniformity of slant throughout the line. 
If this movement is used, the hand is inclined 
to the right more at tlie beginning than at the 
end of the line. There therefore cannot be any 
one fixed degree of inclination which should 
be maintained. 

Position of the arm 

The position of the arm is closely related, in 
some of its aspects, to the slant of the writing and 
to the position of the paper. The part of the dis- 
cussion which deals with these aspects will there- 
fore be deferred and treated in connection with 
the discussion of slant. Other aspects of arm 
position may be treated here. 

In the first place, the arm should rest with 
nearly the full length of the forearm upon the 
desk, with a possible exception to be noted pres- 
ently. This gives the arm firm support upon the 
muscle pad on the lower side of the forearm, and 
it is upon this muscle pad as a sort of rolling base 
that much of the movement of the arm is exe- 
cuted. If the forearm projects more than three or 
four inches over the edge of the desk, the weight 
62 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

of the arm is divided between the hand and the 
shoulder, and the arm, in executing the arm move- 
ments, must swing from the shoulder. 

This movement in which the arm swings from 
the shoulder has sometimes been used and taught. 
For a flat-top desk which is most frequently used, 
it necessitates either having the desk very low, so 
that the forearm does not rest upon the desk 
when the arm hangs from the shoulder ; or holding 
the arm with the elbow suspended at some dis- 
tance from the body. This position is obviously 
fatiguing, and if the desk top were low enough so 
that the arm would hang suspended above it, it 
would lead to the writer's bending low over his 
work, besides being much too low for reading and 
other sorts of work. If a slanting desk is used, the 
conditions are different. The lower edge of the 
desk may be low enough to allow the arm to hang 
from the shoulder and yet the writing itself be in 
such a position as to be easily seen without bend- 
ing over. That such an arrangement is advanta- 
geous for children in the primary grades will be 
argued in another place. 

The position of the left hand and arm is also a 

matter of importance. In general terms the left 

hand and arm should be symmetrically situated 

to the right. If the right forearm rests upon the 

63 



THE TEACHING OF H.\NDWRITING 

desk, so should the left ami. If the right arm 
hangs from the shoulder, the left ami should 
also. The purpose of this mle is the prevention 
ef an unequal elevation of the shoulders with 
consequent cun-ature of the spiae. 

The position of the body has been described in 
sufficient detail in the chapter on hygiene. 

We have considered the adjustments which it 
is possible to conceive and make through beiag 
told and sho"^Ti how. Some practice is, of course, 
necessary to perfect the adjustments, but shcuh 
ifig how is of relatively more miportance and 
learning how of relatively less importance than 
is the case with other aspects of the writing 
coordination. The above described adjustments, 
we have classed as form. We tum now to the 
other aspect in which learning how is the pre- 
dominant means of improvement. 

Learning to ex^uie the movement: the trial and 
success method 

Certain positions which do not involve com- 
plex adjustment or which are not particularly 
novel can be assumed through imitation, but 
a complex movement each person must largely 
learn for himself. The method by which one 
learns to make complex motor adjustments has 
64 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

been aptly called the trial and success (or trial 
and error) method. This method may be used in 
other sorts of learning, but it is in the develop- 
ment of motor skill that it is paramount. No 
extended description is necessary to describe it. 
The name is sufficiently descriptive. A clear no- 
tion of its significance may be gained by reverting 
to Chapter ii. We there saw that the process 
consists in the gradual elimination of useless 
movements and the organization of the move- 
ments which are concerned in the act into a har- 
moniously working group. On the physiological 
side this process is due to the establishment of 
connections between the higher centers of the 
brain (those which represent the meaning, the ap- 
pearance, and the sound of words, etc.) and the 
centers for the muscles used in writing, together 
with connections between the centers controlling 
the various muscles themselves. The formation of 
these connections consists in the establishment of 
paths of low resistance to the passage of the nerv- 
ous current. This leads to the withdrawal of 
excess energy from other channels and hence to 
the elimination of other movements than the ones 
desired. 

Though the child has to learn to make the 
writing movements through his own efforts, and 
65 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

through them alone, there are certain conditions 
which are under the control of the teacher, and 
certain points toward which the teacher may 
direct the attention of the child, which make 
progress more rapid. To these we shall now turn. 

Tlte need of many repetitions 

It is characteristic of all acts which are learned 
by the trial and success method that they cannot 
be perfected at a stroke. There is no royal road 
to their acquisition, but they must be learned 
through a great number of trials or repetitions. 
It is not a question of knowing how to perform 
the movement, but rather of gaining the requi- 
site control over the muscles by which it is made 
so that when we think of the movement or of its 
results the appropriate muscles will contract each 
in its proper time and with the proper force. 
Since we have no means of knowing how to make 
a new movement except as it resembles move- 
ments we have learned before, or involves very 
simple combinations of movements over which 
we already have control, our only means of learn- 
ing is to try, and when the trial movement suc- 
ceeds, repeat it in the same way. 

The difficulty which attaches to the perform- 
ance of the desired movement and to the repe- 
66 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

tition of the correct performance is due to the 
great variety of the elementary movements which 
compose the complex system. Even after the 
constituent movements have been made together 
once, it is difficult to repeat the performance. 
The new centers have to become so accustomed 
to working together that they do so smoothly, 
and that excess energy does not overflow into 
other channels. 

The multiplication of repetitions of a move- 
ment is sufficient to make it easier, but in order 
that it shall increase in accuracy as quickly as 
possible, certain other conditions are essential. 
Mere repetition may not produce improvement 
but may rather serve to fix bad habits. In order 
that the repetitions may be of value for improve- 
ment, it is necessary that the pupil give full atten- 
tion to some phase of the writing and strive to 
bring it up to some definite standard. 

The necessity of attention 
This principle that repetition must be accom- 
panied by improvement if it is to be of much 
value has several practical applications. The first 
is that the pupil must give a high degree of at- 
tention to his work. 
As a general rule, attention is necessary in 
67 



THE TEACHING OF H.\ND\YRITING 

order that improvement may take place. When 
the acti\'ity becomies automatic, that is, when it 
is made without attention to the process, the 
mode of action becomes £xed. Consciousness is 
concerned with new adjustments and is necessan^ 
in order that new adjustments may be made. 
Whenever practice is for the purpose of causing 
improvement, then, it must be carried on while the 
pupil is giving full attention to what he is doing. 
Some writers on learning have held that there 
must be periods during which there is no improve- 
ment. These periods are called plateaus, since 
during such periods the learning curs'e for a time 
remains level. There is e\'idence in support of the 
belief that, contrary- to prevailing opinion, pla- 
teaus are not essential, but are due merely to the 
fact that the learner has at a certain point failed 
to keep his attention properly directed. Certain 
mental or physical conditions may make it very 
difficult to keep attention constant, but the period 
of marking time which ensues is not to be regarded 
as one which is necessary* in order that further 
adjustments may be made; but is, at the best, a 
period in which adjustments pre\'iously made are 
becoming automatic. The new \'iew, in contrast 
to the older one, is that the older adjustments 
may be made automatic at the same time that 
68 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

new ones are being formed, so that no break in 
progress is necessary. 

Incentives to attention should he chiefly intrinsic 

For consistent progress, then, repetitions must 
be attentive. The attention of the child to his 
writing may be gained through motives which 
are extrinsic or intrinsic to the problem before 
him, which is the efficient production of written 
forms. Extrinsic motives are, for example, rivalry, 
the approval of the teacher or parent, or punish- 
ments and rewards. Intrinsic motives are the 
pleasure in rhythmic movement, the pleasure in 
making pleasing forms — a form of the construc- 
tive instinct — and the pleasure in overcoming 
difficulties and in raising one's past record. 

It is probable that we do not sufficiently rely 
on the intrinsic motives. When the repetition 
becomes mechanical and meaningless, it is natu- 
ral that the child should lose interest and that 
we should appeal to outside motives. But if the 
child be kept continually conscious of the prob- 
lem before him and of the point at which improve- 
ment should be made; if he compares his work 
more with his own previous attainment than 
with the work of the child who has more aptitude 
than he, his incentive to effort will be stronger. 

69 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

Extrinsic motives also have the disadvantage 
that they are apt to lead to wrongly appHed 
etiort. While it is, of course, evident that there 
cannot be too much concentration of the atten- 
tion, there may be too much effort at concentra- 
tion. Likewise there may be too much effort 
directed toward speed or form. Too great effort 
is apt to overreach itself, to disorganize the move- 
ment, and to cause a lapse in progress. This 
seldom occurs when the learner is absorbed in the 
process of learning, but it often happens when he 
is conscious of losing interest and tries to spur 
himself on by external considerations. 

We have found that in order that tliere may be 
much improvement through practice the child's 
attention must be upon what he is doing, and 
he should be thinking chiefly of the forms 
which he is producing, and of the improvement 
of the forms or of the movement by which they 
are produced, rather than of some outside fact or 
condition which acts as an extrinsic motive. In 
order that his attention may thus be on his writ- 
ing it is necessary that the child have some spe- 
cific difficulty in mind which he is striving to 
overcome. 

This means something more than that he is 
trying to follow a copy. The child can readily 
70 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

see that his writing departs widely from the copy; 
but his difficulty is to see just in what particular 
ways it differs, and what he must do to make that 
difference less. To this end he must know how to 
analyze the faults of his own writing, and must 
have some notion how to overcome them. He can 
then have some definite point toward which to 
direct his attention and in reference to which he 
can note his improvement. 

It is one of the chief purposes of the scale 
which is described in the last chapter to enable 
the teacher to make an analysis of the pupiFs 
writing and to help him to make it for himself. 
For example, a very common fault of writing and 
one which at the same time has a great deal to 
do with its legibility and is one of the most easily 
remedied, is bad spacing. Good spacing may be 
attained by having a good standard in mind and 
giving some thought to its attainment. On the 
other hand, such faults as irregularity of slant 
or of alinement must be corrected primarily by 
the attainment of regularity of movement. 

A detailed analysis of the faults which appear 
in the child's writing and of the adjustments 
which are necessary to correct them has been 
worked out by Mr. W. C. Reavis, Principal of 
the Laclede School, St. Louis, Missouri, on the 

71 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 



basis of his experience in supervision, and is here 
presented with his permission. 

Analysis of defects in writing and their causes, in 
use hy Principal Reavis 

Defect Cause 

'I. Writing arm too near body. 
2. Thumb too stiff. 
Too much -i 3. Point of nib too far from fingers, 
slant 4. Paper in wrong position. 

,5. Stroke in wrong direction. 
fi. Arm too far from body. 
Writing too J 2. Fingers too near nib. 

straight j 3. Index finger alone guiding pen. 
L 4. Incorrect position of paper, 
r I. Index finger pressing too heavily. 
Writing too -I 2. Using wrong pen. 
heavy 1 3. Penholder of too small diameter. 

f I. Pen held too obliquely or too straight. 
Writing too -l 2. Eyelet of pen turned to side, 
light 1 3. Penholder of too large diameter. 

fi. Thumb too stiff. 
Writing too -j 2. Penholder too lightly held, 
angular L 3. Movement too slow. 

fi. Lack of freedom of movement. 
Writing too J 2. Movements of hand too slow, 
irregular | 3. Pen gripping. 

1 4. Incorrect or uncomfortable position. 
Spacing too f i. Pen progresses too fast to right, 
wide I 2. Too much lateral movement. 

In order to intensify the child's interest in his 
progress in overcoming the dijSiculties of writing, 
a definite record should be kept of his progress. 
72 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

This may be done by giving grades based on a 
writing scale supplemented by specimens of his 
writing which are taken and preserved at regular 
intervals. This is a much more stimulating and 
encouraging record for those pupils at least who 
have rather less than the average ability than is 
the common method of comparing the various 
members of the class with one another. This 
procedure assumes that all pupils have equal 
ability in the subject in question, and that their 
standing depends upon their industry only — a 
false and pernicious assumption. In such a sub- 
ject as handwriting, in which a definite record of 
attainment can be kept, the pupil's achievement 
should chiefly be compared with his own past 
achievement rather than with that of others. 

Length and frequency of periods of practice 

In order that the child's attention may be upon 
his task it is not only necessary that he have the 
right mental attitude toward his work and the 
proper motives to pursue it. His physical condi- 
tion has an important effect upon his atten- 
tion and upon th^ speed with which he learns. 
We are concerned here with his physical condi- 
tion only so far as it is affected by the work itself. 
When a person practices a new activity contin- 

73 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

uously for a certain period of time the amount of 
benefit he derives from the practice becomes less 
after a certain length of time and finally disap- 
pears altogether. This diminution in the rate of 
improvement may be attributed to fatigue and 
the consequent wandering of the attention. 

Fatigue appears especially early when new ac- 
tivities are being learned and varies also with the 
age and individuality of the learner. A nmnber 
of experiments have been performed to ascertain 
the best length of period in different kinds of 
learning. In general these experiments have 
sho^vn that in learning of a mechanical sort the 
same amount of time cut up into short periods 
of practice produces more rapid progress than 
when divided into longer periods. It may safely 
be said that in the first five grades frequent pe- 
riods of ten minutes each will give better results 
than periods of greater length held less frequently. 
It is probably never advantageous, at least in the 
elementary school, to extend the practice period 
beyond twenty minutes. 

Imitation of a person writing better than imitation 
of a copy merely 

It has been said that the child should be stim- 
ulated to improvement not merely by setting a 

74 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

copy before him, but also by leading him to make 
an analysis of his own writing. This raises the 
whole question of the place of imitation in learn- 
ing to write. Two kinds of imitation may be em- 
ployed : the imitation of a finished product or speci- 
men of writing, and the imitation of a person who 
is going through the process of writing. The first 
kind of imitation is employed when the copy-book 
or copy slips are used. The writer has pointed 
out in another place that the trend of modem 
practice is decidedly away from a reliance upon 
the copy-book as the chief means of teaching.^ 

This trend in the teaching of penmanship is analo- 
gous to the change which took place in the teaching 
of drawing in the latter part of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, and the basis for the change is very much the 
same in the one case as in the other. The arguments 
for and against copy-books may briefly be stated. 
The copy-book is regarded as of advantage in teach- 
ing writing, first, because it presents to the child what 
is regarded as a perfect model for him to imitate. 
The belief is that the more perfect the model which 
is set before the child the closer will be his approxima- 
tion to it. 

There are several fallacies, however, in this posi- 
tion. In the first place, the engraved model is the 

* " Current Methods of teaching Handwriting, " Elementary 
School Teacher, 191 2, vol. xii, p. 429. 

75 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

lifeless result of writing and not the process of writ- 
ing itself. The child can very much better miitate 
the process of performing an act than the result of 
the act after it has been completed. Therefore, the 
sight of a teacher writmg presents to the child in a 
ver}' much clearer form the process of writing which 
he has to develop. The whole emphasis of present- 
day teachmg is upon the development of the move- 
ment by which the child produces letters and not 
upon the residt as divorced from the movement. 
xA.gain, the copy which is presented in the copy-book 
is not orduiarily a possible form of MVTiting. It is 
not produced by writing in the ordinary way, and 
it does not, therefore, suggest the kind of writing 
which we wish to develop, but suggests rather the 
slow drawing process by which it itself was actually 
produced. An ideal which is impossible of attain- 
ment by the method which is to be used is a false 
ideal, and has no advantage above a more imper- 
fect product which was produced by the ordinary 
writing method. 

It may be said in reply to this argument that the 
teacher is ordinarily not capable of setting up a good 
enough model for the child. If this is the case, how- 
ever, the teacher is not fit to teach the child properly 
even with the aid of a copy-book. In ever}" form of 
teaching which involves skill or dexterity imitation 
is one of the best means of training, and it is clearly 
recognized that a person who can not perform the 
act himself is not qualified to teach another to do it. 

.76 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

To set up as a model the finished result is nowhere 
else regarded as a satisfactory method of teaching the 
process. It should no more be regarded as satisfactory 
in the teaching of handwriting. The remedy for poor 
writing on the part of the teacher then is not the sub- 
stitution of the finished product in a copy-book, but 
is rather an acquisition of skill on the part of the 
teacher. This is no unreasonable demand of any per- 
son who possesses the average degree of manual skill. 

We must then give up the notion that writing 
can be taught in a mechanical way merely by 
setting before the child models for him to copy 
and providing for him a space which he is to fill. 
In the subject of writing, as in the other subjects 
of the curriculum, we are coming to recognize that 
the function of the teacher is to guide the learning 
process of the pupil and not merely to set tasks 
and hear lessons. Each child has his own prob- 
lems which are more or less individual and these 
require the guidance of a living intelligent teacher 
rather than a mere lifeless model. 

The special methods adapted to different grades ' 

The adaptation of the character of the teach- 
ing to the needs and ability of the pupil has an- 
other aspect in the variations in method and 
content which are necessary in order to make 

77 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

th.^-' ' ■ ^ to iho children of ditTorcnt age?. 
F.ii..::: . .' . ..;.xe :hi> .• .^.:pt.uion adoqiL^'v^K- "'^is 
bee- e":.;:\:e:ev;<::e -e: ::vre]y of ee- /eek 
sx'^tems, but also of methods whieh Liy stress 
up>on move-'.e".: d.-'.lV A tor- 'orecressive systems 
of botli kir....- ./ . .'.e .. V.e vv.\ , ■. . -uAing modifi- 
cations of one sort or another to suit the different 
grades. In the e.^se o^ :-:e ee;n■-^ook^ the main 
changes whieh .::e i;\::e.i-.:.\\i .:ve :^\e u<e of large 
coarse writing in the eopy for the lower grades 
and the introo..:. '.'e:: of pictures and of text 
which is interes:-/ c :e the child. The chief mod- 
ification in /'e\\ •; t-drill methods is to defer 
anything like e\..::.:g drill until the third or 
fourth c- ^ 0^ ; S. -:;e o: the most widely use<.i sys- 
tems. V .-...N e not yet made such obviously 
rational conceptions to the demands of child 
nature. Th; /..^—''.^ns which are necessar)' to 
meet these .iv . - .ve may consider in further 
detail. 

Han(ki'riHng in thf primary grades 

Se.ne writers 
h;/ vuig ail writing until the 

th:.,. :. .:„.... ^......s on the ground that the 

writing activity is too exacting upon the nen-ous 

SN-steni of the primary child because it requires 

'7SJ 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

finely adjusted movements and general immo- 
bility of body. On the other hand, the widely 
exploited Montessori method has as one of its 
most prominent features the instruction in writ- 
ing of children of kindergarten age. 

The views of those who would defer writing arc 
not without reason, but the objections upon which 
they arc founded can be met without such radical 
changes as are demanded. The Montessori method 
attempts to meet these objections by introducing 
the child to writing by a series of steps which are 
so well graded that he enters upon each succeeding 
step without great difficulty or nervous exhaus- 
tion. The chief distinctive feature of this method 
is training in the perception of form by handling 
objects of various geometrical form, by using the 
pencil in filling in spaces, and by tracing with the 
fingers letters cut out of sandpaper, before any 
attempt is made to write. The child thus becomes 
familiar with the general shape of the letters by 
the direct processes of touch and movement be- 
fore he undertakes the rather difficult specialized 
activity of producing them with a pen or pencil. 

Some such exercises preliminary to writing 
itself are doubtless of value. When the child be- 
gins writing proper, however, the problem is not 
ended. At this point the Montessori method 

79 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

leaves us. It is apparent from the appearance of 
the children who learn by that method — accord- 
ing to the writer's observation of photographs 
taken in Rome — that the children often exhibit 
a cramping of the hand from which those who are 
taught by the best methods in the United States 
are free. 

His writing should he very large. The writing of 
the beginner should have two characteristics. It 
should be very large, and it should be done with 
the arm as a whole rather than with the fingers. 
These two prescriptions are related and their 
reasons are fairly obvious. In the chapter on 
"Physiology and Hygiene '' it was pointed out 
that the child is capable of much less precise 
movements than is the adult, and that there is 
a steady progress in precision of movement with 
age. Now it is clear that a large letter can be 
made with much less precision than a small one 
without producing any greater departure from 
the true form of the letter. The same amount 
of deviation forms a much smaller proportion 
of the whole. This conclusion is confirmed by 
the universal experience that it is easier to 
write in good form on the blackboard than upon 
paper. 

He should write with the arm as a whole. The 
80 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

second requirement follows from the first. If the 
child writes with the fingers his writing is almost 
sure to be comparatively small — in the natural 
trend smaller than the adult's — because the range 
of movement of his fingers is less. 

The movement in which the arm as a whole is 
most readily employed, as distinguished from the 
fingers, is the so-called whole-arm movement 
which is made without resting the forearm on the 
desk. In order that this movement may be prop- 
erly carried out the desk top should have a slant 
of at least fifteen or twenty degrees, as has already 
been said. Under these conditions the front edge 
of the desk will be low enough so that the child's 
elbow will clear it when the arm hangs from 
the shoulder. The movement cannot be properly 
made with a flat-top desk at such a height that 
the elbow must be held up at a distance from the 
body. This position is fatiguing and results in 
the formation of a habit which is difficult to break 
up in the higher grades. 

When the conditions make it impossible for the 
child to make the whole-arm movement properly, 
the next best procedure is to use the arm move- 
ment with rest and require the child to write as 
large as his arm will permit. It will be possible 
to obtain writing in which the one-space letters 
8i 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

are nearly one-half inch in height if pains are 
taken to develop flexibility of movement. 

Besides being less precise this type of writing 
has other advantages. When the child begins to 
write, as was said in a previous chapter, there is a 
good deal of diffusion of the nervous impulse. The 
muscles of the fingers, being the more easily con- 
tracted, are affected by this diffused impulse 
more than are the larger muscles at the shoulder. 
In fact the fingers become over-contracted, as 
observation of children writing reveals. To avoid 
this over-contraction it is necessary to encourage 
the use of the arm as a whole. 

Appropriate standards of size, speed, and accuracy. 
These two requirements of size and arm move- 
ment are met in highest degree by blackboard 
writing, and accordingly this has been found to 
be the best form with which to begin. When the 
child begins to write on paper after several months 
of blackboard writing, he should use rough-sur- 
faced paper, large, smooth pencil or crayon, and 
should continue to write large. For a time the 
one-spaced letters may be one half inch high. 
The height may be gradually reduced until in the 
third grade the child is using letters about half as 
high. If ruled paper is used, the fines should be an 
inch and a half apart to start with, about an inch 
82 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

apart in the low third grade, and so on. Not until 
the upper grades at least should lines as close as 
three eighths of an inch be used, if then. A very 
common fault in writing, which reduces its legi- 
bility greatly, is the crowding together of the 
lines. Since school pupils commonly use ruled 
paper this fault must be ascribed in the main to 
the closeness of the ruling. The only considera- 
tion favoring crowding the lines is economy in 
paper, and this is not of sufficient importance to 
outweigh the importance of legibility. 

The requirement as to speed. As the require- 
ments on the score of accuracy should be less 
severe than those imposed upon the older pupil, 
so also should he be required to write less rapidly. 
Not only is he less capable of rapid movement in 
general, as all experiments have shown, but he is 
less adept in this particularly difficult and com- 
plex movement. This is not always recognized. 
The worst delinquents in this regard are some of 
those who emphasize arm-movement drill. They 
sometimes make no distinction at all between the 
speed required of the different grades, and the 
resulting scrawls cannot be justified on any score. 
The child should write slowly enough to enable 
him to make the letters with some semblance of 
their true form and with some regularity. Certain 

83 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

sorts of irregularity are natural in his condition 
of undeveloped control, but they should not be 
exaggerated by undue haste. 

In a study of the rate of movement of children 
in the grades it was found that children of differ- 
ent ages differed widely in their ability to make 
up and down strokes rapidly.^ The median 
grammer-grade child made about twice as many 
strokes per minute as the median first-grade child. 
Not over one hundred double strokes can be ex- 
pected of the first-grade child, while about two 
hundred can be made by the upper-grade child. 
The speed of writing letters does not increase as 
rapidly as the speed of making simple strokes, 
since the more rapid writer, as was shown in a 
previous chapter, spends a larger proportion of 
his time on the complex parts of the letters. The 
difference is sufficiently great, however, to jus- 
tify making much greater demands in the matter 
of speed of the mature than of the immature 
writer. 

We should not, then, expect either a high de- 
gree of accuracy or a high speed of the beginner. 
On the other hand, the child should write with 
sufficient fluency so that the successive stages of 

1 "Current Methods of teaching Handwriting," Elementary 
School Teacher, 191 2, vol. xiii, p. 32. 

84 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

the movement are fused together into a whole 
complex movement. If the movement is slowed 
down beyond a certain point it ceases to be a 
single movement and becomes a succession of 
movements. In the earlier stages, to be sure, it 
must be slow enough so that the eye may be used 
to guide it and keep it from going too far astray, 
for we have found that the child exercises greater 
visual control than the skilled writer; but this 
control should be used only to modify the direc- 
tion of the movement in course, and, not to stop 
it entirely and start it in a new direction. Only if 
the movement is continuous can improvement be 
made in the ability to produce fluently a form the 
image of which is in the mind. The learner must 
come to know what it feels like to make the move- 
ment needed to produce the form, and this he 
acquires only when the movement can be expe- 
rienced as a whole. 

The standards of speed and accuracy must ad- 
vance together. On the side of form also a certain 
minimum of excellence must be maintained in 
order that practice may be of profit. The mere 
making of movements which have the outward 
semblance of writing is of little if any value. The 
child is not by this process acquiring an image of 
the form of the letter, for it must not be forgotten 

85 



THE TEACHING OF Hx\NDWRITING 

that the image is only perfected by the actual 
carrying-out of the idea into action. The order 
is not first a concept, then its reproduction; 
but first a vague, very imperfect notion, which is 
refined and perfected by the attempt to realize it 
in action. The writing activity plays an important 
part in the acquisition of the idea of the form 
of the letters. The pupil by writing carelessty is 
therefore only acquiring slovenly ideas which he 
will later have to displace. In writing, then, as 
in other forms of skill, the standard m speed and 
accuracy must advance together. The demand 
for either the speed or the accuracy of the expert 
in the beginner is founded on wrong educational 
principles. Whether the learner progresses with 
equal rapidity in both forms of excellence in the 
different stages of liis learning, or what the pre- 
cise relation of the two should be, has not been 
determined. 

It is not the place here to give in detail a series 
of exercises or lessons to be used in teaching 
writing. Such plans may be foimd in the various 
published manuals and exercise books. We may 
merely lay down certain principles wliich should 
underlie the detailed course of procedure, and 
from these the individual teacher may work out 
her ow^i course or may select in the light of these 
86 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

principles details of procedure from the various 
published courses or systems. 

Writing should have meaning to the child from 
the beginning. From the beginning writing should 
have meaning to the child and should be con- 
nected with his reading and other language activ- 
ities. Not much detailed analysis of letter forms 
should be made nor should perfection of form be 
demanded. The old method of requiring the child 
to make first the simple letter elements or ''prin- 
ciples," and then leading him out of these to build 
up letters and words, starts at the wrong end. A 
few elementary movement drills, such as the 
straight line and direct and reversed ovals, may 
be practiced for the purpose of gaining control 
and freedom of action; and the appropriate 
letters may be made in connection with these 
drills. But such drills should be incidental to 
actual writing and not preliminary to it. The 
order of procedure is to choose some simple word 
which is already of significance to the child, write 
it for him on the board, have him attempt to 
copy the word through imitating the action, and 
finally lead him to the criticism of his product 
and to the practice which will produce improve- 
ment. 

The words and sentences should present progress- 
87 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

ive difficulties. For a considerable time the writing 
lesson is the only time when the child writes. Its 
chief purpose is to give the teacher opportunity 
to guide the child's early efforts to write. In order 
to make the task progressive in difficulty words 
may be chosen in such an order as to include first 
easy letters and letter combinations and then 
successively harder ones. For example the word 
"see" is one which is likely to occur in the child's 
reading and is well fitted because of its simplicity 
as a beginning word. The one-spaced letters are 
in general suited for the first work, followed by the 
two- or more-spaced letters and the capitals. The 
classification of the letters in Fig. 8, page 107, 
may serve as a suggestion of the general order of 
the letters, but no such classification can be 
strictly followed, and the difficulty of the con- 
nection between letters as well as of the letters 
themselves must be studied. Furthermore the 
simpler two- and three-spaced letters may be 
used before all the one-spaced letters have been 
written and the easier capitals before the harder 
small letters. Following the principle that writ- 
ing should have meaning, sentences must be used 
early and this involves the use of capitals. 

The value of formal drill. A word may be said 
regarding the value of formal drill preliminary 
88 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

to writing for the purpose of leading to some de- 
gree of movement control and for developing gen- 
eral acquaintance with the forms of the letters. 
Such drills have been made familiar in the Mon- 
tessori method. The chief value of such methods 
is that they give the child the motor experience 
which corresponds to letter forms. That is, in 
such an act as tracing over the sandpaper letters 
with his finger he finds out how it feels to make 
the movement, and this feeling of the move- 
ment gives him the cue which enables him to 
make it again. The sandpaper merely acts as a 
motive to move in the proper direction. It sup- 
plements the sight motive by the touch motive. 
The other preliminary exercises of the Montes- 
sori system, as drawing and filling in outlines, 
serve the purpose of giving the child practice in 
handling the pencil. The aspect of the method by 
which the child is enabled to write words spon- 
taneously and to spell out new words is based 
upon the phonetic drill which the child undergoes 
in putting together cardboard letters and is made 
possible in large measure by the phonetic charac- 
ter of the Italian language. 

Individuals vary in capacity and needs. In 
teaching primary writing especially, attention to 
the capacity and needs of the individual pupil is 
89 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

necessary. Some pupils can write from the start 
with Httle difficulty. Others need constant guid- 
ance and help. 

What may be required by the end of the third 
year. By the end of the third grade the child should 
have become somewhat accustomed to the use of 
the pen; he should be able to write a large hand, 
making well-formed letters with a fair degree of 
fluency, say fifty letters a minute ; and should have 
made a beginning in the use of writing as a means 
of expression of his thought. He has had lessons 
in writing, but they have been occupied mainly in 
supervision of his general position and mode of 
carrying on the movement, and in some analysis 
of letter forms, and have included little formal 
drill. During these first years, as indeed during 
the whole of his school career, the character of 
the writing in all the work in the school should be 
carefully supervised. 

Handwriting in the intermediate grades 

When he passes to the fourth grade the child is 
coming into possession of a considerably higher 
degree of motor control. Moreover, he can be- 
come interested in perfecting his control through 
well-directed drill. This drill, as has been said, 
must not be mechanical, but if the child can be 
90 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

made to see his progress he will be interested. 
The habit of movement which is to be the perma- 
nent one should now be learned if it has not been 
acquired previously. A judicious use of move- 
ment exercises may now be made. To a consider- 
ation of the best forms of movement and of move- 
ment exercises we next turn. 

The best type of movement. The various forms 
of movement which are commonly used in writ- 
ing may be best described by the terms "free- 
arm movement," "arm movement with rest," 
"finger movement," and "combined arm and fin- 
ger movement." Some writers employ still an- 
other movement — that of the wrist. This is made 
by an alternate flexion and extension of the wrist 
with the hand turned over on the outside, and is to 
be distinguished from the side-to-side movement 
which may be made to carry the hand along from 
letter to letter. The wrist movement is rather 
common among Europeans and serves to make 
the writing freer than when an extreme form of 
finger movement is used, but the necessity which 
it entails of turning the hand over on the side 
impairs the free progress of the hand along the 
line. We may therefore dismiss it from our con- 
sideration. 

Of the four other forms of movement or of 
91 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

movement combinations which are mentioned 
above, the free arm movement has aheady been 
advocated as suitable for the coarse, free writing 
of the first three grades. Now, however, the 
child's writing must become smaller and more 
accurate. It is much easier to make an accurate 
movement when the arm and hand are supported, 
and as the child attains greater maturity and 
motor control there is not so much danger that 
the fingers will be excessively cramped through 
diffusion of the nervous impulse. Hence some 
form of movement with the arm resting on the 
desk should now be adopted. 

The practical issue is between the arm move- 
ment with rest and the combined finger and arm 
movement. The combined movement as distin- 
guished from the extreme finger movement in- 
cludes a free side-to-side movement of the hand 
and arm along the line while the fingers form the 
letters, and, it may be, in addition, a slight up- 
ward and downward oscillation of the arm as the 
letters are being formed. In the extreme forms 
of the arm movement the arm does the whole 
work, including the formation of the details of 
the letters. 

The difference here indicated between the arm 
movement with rest and the combined movement 
92 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

is not great or very important. If a strict adher- 
ence to the demand for the entire exclusion of the 
movements of the fingers is maintained, consid- 
erable drill will be required beyond that amount 
necessary to form the habit of a satisfactory com- 
bined movement. As a matter of fact, the amount 
of drill given in the elementary school does not 
suffice to produce this result in the majority of 
the children. 

The arm movement with rest — the so-called 
muscular movement — is an American discovery 
and has been vigorously exploited in commercial 
schools since the last quarter of the last century 
and more recently in certain systems of teaching 
in the public schools. It seems likely that within 
twenty-five years this form of writing will be 
practically universal in American schools. The 
chief advantages of the movement are two. In 
the first place, it is made with the fingers rela- 
tively relaxed, thus avoiding cramping. In the 
second place, the rolling movement of the arm 
upon the muscle pad of the forearm produces a 
firmness and evenness of line, and the fact that 
the movement is produced from a center at a 
considerable distance from the pen point results 
in regularity of slant. 

The survival of this type of movement may 
92> 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

depend upon a discriminating view of its merits 
and defects upon the part of its advocates. If it 
is made to do more than its fair share of work or 
if its merits are insisted on with too uncritical 
enthusiasm, opportunity will be given those who 
may find profit in picking flaws in it and in lead- 
ing to a reaction to a different kind of movement. 
The use of the movement by beginners, in the 
writer's opinion, furnishes such ground of attack. 
Another ground is the over-emphasis of move- 
ment drill to the neglect of an analysis of the 
form of the letters. Finally, the contention that 
every detail of the letters shall be made by the 
movement of the arm while the fingers remain 
immobile is calculated to antagonize reasonable 
critics. The oscillation of the arm may well form 
the main basis for the upward and downward 
strokes of the letters, but to require that every 
loop and turn and joining be produced by the 
movement of the arm as a whole, instead of the 
much more flexible hand and fingers, is to set up 
an artificial requirement and one which is not 
made in regard to other types of skifled move- 
ment. 

The form of movement, then, which best meets 
the requirements which may be laid down as the 
result of experiment and of practical experience 
94 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

is somewhat as follows: The hand and arm must 
be so adjusted that the hand progresses freely 
along the line during the formation of the letters 
and in the spaces between words. The hand must 
rest upon some freely sliding point or points of 
contact such as the finger nails or the side of 
the little finger. When, on the contrary, the pen 
point is carried along from one letter to another 
by means of adjustments of the parts of the 
fingers and the hand, the hand continually gets 
into a cramped position. 

The movements of the arm and fingers should 
form a smooth and easy coordination in which 
there is a condition of flexibility in the whole 
member. The rotation of the arm upon the muscle 
pad of the forearm as a center carries the hand 
along, the upward and downward oscillatory 
movement forms the groundwork of the letter 
formation, and slight adjustments of the fingers 
complete the details of the letters. In addition to 
these chief elements of the movement the wrist 
may rotate to the side to supplement the sideward 
movement of the arm, and the forearm may re- 
volve upon its axis in the movement of pronation 
as a corrective to the increase in slant at the end 
of the line. There is no good reason for seeking to 
eliminate any of these component movements. 

95 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

Each has some part to play. Moreover, room 
must be left for individual differences in their 
relative prominence and manner of combina- 
tion. 

Position of the paper and of the arm, and slant. 
In the early part of the chapter the question of 
the position of the paper and of the arm in rela- 
tion to it was deferred, since these matters related 
to the type of movement which is used. Con- 
nected with them also is the problem of slant, so 
that all these questions should be considered 
together. 

In the chapter upon the "Physiology and 
Hygiene of Writing," the bearing of the position 
of the paper and of the slant of the writing upon 
the health of the child was discussed. The situa- 
tion in brief is this. In the last quarter of the 
last century a number of physicians, particu- 
larly in France and Germany, found that the 
mode of writing then in vogue produced spinal 
curvature and eye-strain. The position com- 
monly assumed in writing was the side position 
with the right arm on the desk and the left 
arm off; and an extreme slant was commonly 
used. In correcting posture it was beHeved that 
the slant of writing must be done away with. 
That this does not follow appears from the 
96 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

considerations presented in the former chapter. 
We may now consider what principles should 
govern slant and the position of the arm and 
paper. 

The fundamental considerations which govern 
the slant which should be adopted are those of 
movement. There has been extensive contro- 
versy over the question whether a straight front 
position of the paper (resulting in vertical writ- 
ing) or a tilted position conforms better to the 
eye movements. The evidence for the tilted posi- 
tion is as convincing as that for the straight posi- 
tion, and the question must therefore be settled 
on other grounds. 

Two general features of the writing movement 
determine the answer to the problem. In the 
first place, the arm and the paper must be in such 
relation that the rotation of the forearm about 
the elbow as a center carries the hand along the 
line of writing. This means that the paper must 
be tilted to the left until the line of writing is 
about at right angles to the forearm. The second 
principle is that the most natural direction of the 
upward and downward strokes of the writing is 
toward the body — or about at right angles to 
the edge of the desk. This makes the writing 
deviate from the vertical by the same angle that 

97 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 



the paper is tilted. The relationships are illus- 
trated in Fig. 3. 

The other argument besides that based on hy- 
giene is to the effect that vertical writing is more 
legible than slanting writing. When the writing 

conforms to the 
standard form 
this is true. But 
the difference is 
not great, even 
if it does so con- 
form, and when 
it does not, as 
is often the case, 
vertical writing 
may become as 
illegible as slant- 
ing writing. The 
superior legibil- 
ity of vertical 
writing lies part- 
ly at least in the 
sharp contrast 
between the direction of the vertical strokes and 
the connecting strokes, which results in the sharp 
marking-off of the letters from one another. In 
rapid writing the various strokes tend to be 
93 




Figure 3 

Diagram of the relation of the body and 

arms to the desk and the paper. 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

made in the same direction, whether vertical or 
slanting. When this happens vertical writing 
may become very illegible, as may be observed in 
Fig. 4. 

This tendency for the succeeding strokes to 
have the same direction constitutes another 
reason why, from the point of view of movement, 

Figure 4 

Specimen of vertical writing showing assimilation of the upward to 
the downward strokes in direction. 

writing has usually had and should have a slant. 
The connecting strokes having a slant, the other 
up-and-down strokes are naturally influenced in 
the same direction. 

No fixed rule as to the degree of slant which is 
best can be given. In general, extreme slant is 
unnecessary to satisfy the requirements of move- 
ment. A slant of not more than thirty degrees 
from the vertical therefore is to be recommended. 

Movement drill. The elaboration of the tech- 

99 



THK TEACHING OF H.VNDWRITING 



de^rre;^ . .,,.>.. ^ . > 

q^iii^einv-: V. :: 

tiiie act 115 it? V - ^. :.- . .^ . > 

lM:g^d^ ^^?uk wmch he ^ to 

at: <c^ > : c iiiisitKiaDit and ol 

its : I: i> : tbedifld probft* 

1^> ^ - .^ readily tliiatn 

d.:> loMtate a 

an: .; .\ ; . : ^. . ; .^ . ;; • , , ., ^, . ^rmal 

have be^fsa dev^Sied. Ce: - . r ^^tn»' 

11IUY^> . - . : . ^ - - ^ : ; :e 

Cfc*:-^^ :;- ^ - . . ^: ^. - 

ic ^ - : . ;;.■.>:.-■ . . . ^ , . - . ■ 






tls^ere 



> lioo ol the letTAoesi 

ov«L S^u :y used ffws^ of 

did! ate th. . _ ^e, m stoilse. ivrxi 

I ^loke (s«e rig. i oit ^Kse diills 



< 1 ^ 



lsX> 



/ 








/ 






J 
















":^"^^^-^ 


I 






; ...J 








4 




^=^ ,.-*=^^ -^-^; 


' ->..0 




G 



cj. This exercise 

was done icith the ff / 
Forearm Movement, ^n 7 
Notice the smooth lines. 





/ / / /u 



The right 
circle (i?) trith{M J^ 
the Forearm, Jlovement. +' 
The "X" indicates the starting point. 

Figure 5 

lUustrations of formal driUs. From Bement^ Schvol Teo^cher 

1912. vol. xm. page 2S. (Reproduced with the permission of the 
rniversit3^ of Chicago Press.) 



THE TEACHING OF H.\NDWRITL\G 

evidently to give the pupil practice in the use of 
the arm movement in the production of the 
letters. 

Another t^-pe of drill is particularly directed 
toward the development of the arm component 
in carr}-ing the hand along the line while the 
letters may be produced by the hnger and the 
hand. This t>pe of drill has been particularly 
developed in the Bennett method ^see Fig. 6). 




FlGOlE 6 

Illustrations of the lateral movemest drills as xised in the Bennett 
s>-st«n. Reduced to one-half size. From ^'- ------. School Teacher, 

1912. vol. xin. page 29 (.Heproduced v^-i: ;:raission of the 

University of Chicago Press.) 



This method, in fact, excludes entirely the oval 

and up-and-down drills. The drills which are 

102 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

included in this method are the back-and-forth 
horizontal stroke, the so-called swinging and 
rocking stroke, and the development of the i and 
the n out of a combination of these strokes with 
an intervening downward stroke. This forward- 
and-backward movement is used even in the 
development of the letters themselves, as well as 
in the movement between the letters. Thus a is 
produced by a combination of the rocking and 
swinging movement with the downward move- 
ment following. This same lateral movement is 
emphasized in certain drills used by Houston, 
Berry, and others (see Fig. 7). These drills con- 
sist in a succession of letters which are connected 
by strokes an inch or more long. In such a drill it 
is necessary to combine smoothly the movement 
which produces the letters and the movement 
which carries the hand across the page. Since 
this touches upon the essential problem in the 
development of the writing coordination, the 
writer believes that such drills are of the highest 
importance. The oval and the straight up-and- 
down stroke are useful to develop an easy, flowing 
movement. 

Only the commonly used formal drills have 
been here referred to, since more labored forms 
are a matter for individual choice. A great many 
103 



THE TEACHING OE RlNDWRITEN'G 

of the ::: :Hs, have Vfen :-e\-i>ed. These 

may be ii>e;\:l iz c:~rfllizc .he rur^G to use a 




rp3 SSps for Gcide IIL 



: C4nm^:K§. A ve-- 
IC4 



e-:t 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

of the teaching of movement drills, and in fact of 
the best form of movement in writing itself, is 
rhythm. Experimental investigations have shown 
that one of the main differences between the 
writing of the child and of the adult is that the 
latter is very much more characterized by rhythm 
than the former. That is, the adult tends to 
write in time as though to music. The successive 
strokes, though very different in length, tend to 
approximate each other in time. It has also been 
shown that the use of an imposed rhythm, that is, 
the requirement that the child write according to 
a certain rhythm, tends to unify his writing and 
render it more mature in character. 

The count is usually made upon the down stroke 
of the letter, though at least one method gives the 
count on the sideward or connecting stroke. The 
important thing is that regularity and continuity 
be introduced into the movement. The time is 
usually marked by counting, making a series of 
raps with a ruler, handclaps, or metronome beats. 
A still better method of indicating tempo, which 
has long been used for marching, dancing, gy^m- 
nastic exercises, etc., is music. This adds still 
more to the pleasure of rhythmic movement. 

The rate of count should be regulated accord- 
ing to the age and degree of progress of the pupils. 
105 



THE TEACHING OF H^WDWRITDsG 

The rate of t^o hundred double strokes a min- 
ute which is commonly used is too rapid for those 
who are beginning movement drill, but may be 
perhaps attained at the end of a year's practice. 

Care should be taken to see that the pupils are 
actually foUowing the rhythm. Some pupils have 
little sense of rh}thm and a few may perhaps have 
to be left to go their own pace. 

Letter groups an the basis of movement. An 
intermediate step between purely formal drill and 
writing is drill in the writing of certain classes of 
letters in connection with the formal drill with 
which they are most closely related. Thus cer- 
tain letters, as the capitals 0, C, A, G, D, and £, 
are made by the direct oval movement with 
slight variations. For the purpose of this drill on 
letters they may with advantage be classined and 
those which are made with similar movement 
practiced in connection with the corresponding 
formal movement drill. The accompan^iag fig- 
ure illustrates the most complete classincation 
made on this basis with which the writer is 
familiar. 

In this system the small letters are di^-ided into 

six groups, as foUows ^^see Fig. S^ : first, /, ii, and 

w, which are based upon the direct oval; second, 

», w, r, and x, which are based upon the reverse 

io6 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

oval; third, a, e, o, and c, which are also based 
upon the direct oval, but are regarded as more 
complex than the first group; fourth, r and 5, 

3 fCL/ - ^y n- c^ 

^ ^^ ^^ , 

A r£ ^ ^y^y ^. ^ ^^ ^i^" 

Figure 8 

Classification and order of development of letters in the Economy 
System. From Elementary School Teacher, 1912, vol. xn, page 484. 
(Reproduced with the permission of the University of Chicago Press.) 

which are miscellaneous letters; fifth, t, d, p, and 
5, which have in common the straight up-and- 
down line; and sixth, l, b, h, k,j, g, y, z, and 
/ which have the upper or the lower loop in 
107 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

common. The first and third groups might very 
well be placed together, since they are based upon 
the same t3^e of movement. This, of course, is not 
the only possible classification. For example, a, 
d, q, and g might be classed together on the basis 
of the similar movement which is used in making 
the parts which are common between these 
letters. Similarly, n, m, p, and h might be grouped 
together. The purpose of any such classification 
is not to make the grouping rigid, but to classify 
the letters for a particular purpose, that is, to 
secure systematic and consecutive practice. In 
the course of the development similarities which 
are not represented in the main classification 
may very well be brought out and made the sub- 
ject of drill. Some such classification as is here 
suggested is to be highly recommended for the 
purpose of introducing system and consecutive- 
ness to the drill. 

The capital letters may also be grouped ac- 
cording to the similarity of the movement by 
which they are written. The classification will 
depend to some extent upon the type of letters 
which are chosen, but the broad lines of grouping 
may be illustrated again from the Economy Sys- 
tem. The first group, which is based upon the 
direct oval, is composed of OjCj Aj G, D, and E, 
io8 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

The second group, which is related to the reverse 
oval, is composed of E, K, M, N, V, U, W, Q, X, 
Y, Z, /, /, P, By and R. The third group is com- 
posed of the complex letters T, F, S, and L. 

Organization of exercises. This system of classifi- 
cation suggests the order of exercises suited to 
develop the letters in connection with their ap- 
propriate movement drills. The objection to an 
analytic type of procedure does not hold here as 
in the case of the first grade. The fourth-grade 
pupil knows how to write in order to express his 
thoughts and now merely needs drill in technique 
to develop the movement control which will en- 
able him to write rapidly and accurately. We 
may therefore begin with formal movement 
drills — the repetition of the straight up-and- 
down stroke or the direct oval, for example — 
then develop the simple letters which are based 
on these drills and their combinations into words, 
and so on. 

Practice on each of the several important types 
of movement drill shown in Fig. 5, page loi, with 
the appropriate small letters, may occupy several 
exercises. After the various drills have been gone 
through and reviewed they may form the intro- 
duction to each succeeding lesson. The capital 
letters may then be gone through in the same 
109 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

way. Then practice may be given in forms of 
drill which exercise the lateral movement of the 
arm^ such as those illustrated from Bennett or 
from Houston. While drill is being given upon 
the various classes of small and capital letters, 
various appropriate combinations of letters in 
words may be practiced. When the alphabets 
have been gone through once a greater propor- 
tion of the drill may be upon words and sentences 
so as to include a great variety of letter combi- 
nations. It may be of value to give especial at- 
tention to frequently occurring combinations, as 
Hon and ing. The digits should also be prac- 
ticed. 

Another matter which should be given atten- 
tion is the arrangement of the writing on the 
page. Spacing between letters, words, and lines, 
paragraphing, margins at the top, bottom, and 
sides should all be discussed and illustrated. 

During this progress through the various kinds 
of movement drill some attention may be given 
to the form of the letters, but this feature of writ- 
ing is bound to suffer for a time while the new 
type of adjustment is being learned. After the 
course as outlined above has been gone through 
the drill should be continued, giving more at- 
tention to the detection and correction of errors, 
no 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

The causes of the errors made by each i)upil 
should J)e (h'scussed and removed, and a record 
of progress in speed and in the various charac- 
teristics represented in the writing chart to 
be described in the last chapter, should be 
kept. 

The relation to be maintained between the 
speed of writing and its legibility or excellence of 
form may vary with the stage of advancement 
of the puj)iL In practice it varies also between 
l>upils in the same stage of advancement in differ- 
ent schools or school systems.' Thus, for ex- 
ample, in the fourth grade of one school the speed 
was found to be 60 letters a minute and the legi- 
bility (on the Ayers Scale) 50, while in the same 
grade of another school the speed was S^ and the 
legibility 42.5. 

Style of alphabet. A relatively unimportant 
matter, but one which sometimes arouses ques- 
tion, is the style of alphabet which is to be used 
as a model for imitation. A simi)le form of script 
which is not extreme in any respect is the best. 
The letters should not be ornamented with 
flourishes or unduly simplified by leaving off 

* Sec an arlicle by the author entitled "Some Practical 
Studies of Handwriting," Elementary School Teacher, igi3, 
vol. XIV, pp. 167-179. 

Ill 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

connecting strokes. Flourishes require time with- 
out increasing beauty and legibility. Elimination 
of connecting strokes decreases fluency. Again, 
too round a hand probably reduces speed, while 
too angular a hand reduces legibility. To go 
much further than this and prevent all individual 
choice by prescribing the exact form of every 
stroke is pedantry. The most important require- 
ment of letters is that they be clearly distin- 
guishable from each other. Deviations in the 
form of a letter, then, which destroy its distinc- 
tive form are to be discouraged. Others may be 
permitted. 

The characteristics of the specific writing in- 
struction which marks the introduction of in- 
tensive writing drill in the intermediate grades 
have been discussed. The course outlined will 
occupy perhaps a year. The succeeding year or 
two should be occupied in the fixing of the habits 
which have been built up by repetition with va- 
riation to suit the needs of particular classes or 
individuals. Three years of such drill should be 
enough, in the judgment of the writer, to pro- 
duce a well-developed habit, provided the work 
has been consistent and has not been preceded 
by the formation of cramped finger movement 
writing in the early grades. 

112 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

Handwriting in the grammar grades 

The task in the grammar grades, then, is to pre- 
vent the pupil from falHng into bad habits, grad- 
ually to increase the efficiency of his habit, and 
to complete the automatization of the habit. 

Prevent the pupil from falling into bad habits. 
Bad habits of various sorts may be fallen into, 
and some attention is required to prevent their 
formation. For example, habits of bad posture 
may be contracted, due in many cases to writing 
without sufficient room on the desk. Or writing 
may become over-hasty. Or the proper relation 
between the arm and the paper may not be kept. 
Or excessive finger movement may be used. The 
habit once being formed does not guarantee that 
it may not be broken down, due to the stress of 
unfavorable conditions. 

Increase the efficiency of his habit. In the second 
place, writing should be carried to a higher point 
of efficiency than is usually attained in the fifth 
or sixth grade, particularly in the matter of speed. 
The pupils at least who go on into the high 
school — and an increasing number are doing so 
— should be able to write easily and legibly one 
hundred letters a minute. Otherwise under the 
stress of note taking, theme writing, and writing 

113 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING ^ 

in tests and examinations they either will be at a 
serious disadvantage on account of their slo^\Ties3 
or in their haste will disorganize tlieir writhig 
habit. 

Make it compJctdy automatic. In the third 
place, the writing habit should in these grades 
become as completely automatic as possible. 
That is, the child's attention should not need to 
be given to his writing movement or to tlie de- 
tails of the letters except in so far as is necessary 
to see that they do not deteriorate, but should be 
free to be occupied with the thought which is be- 
ing expressed. 

Avtyid coutiniial experimenting with the style of 
"icriting. A great obstacle to the automatization 
of the writmg habit is the practice of continually 
experimenting with it — not allowing it to settle 
down to a fixed mode of action. This does not 
mean that there should not be improvement, but 
that there should not be a radical shifting of the 
style of writing in any respect. Such shifting may 
be brought about by imitatmg the style of a new 
teacher, by a wave of fashion among the pupils 
throughout a school, or by an administrative 
change in method in a school system. As a mat- 
ter of general prmciple such an administrative 
change should never be made to apply to the 
114 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

grades above the fifth and ordinarily not in the 
fifth grade. 

Use one style in both writing lesson and other 
school work. Another obstacle to automatization 
is the use of two or more styles of writing under 
different conditions. The pupil often uses one 
style for the writing lesson and another for the 
rest of his school work. This is probably due in 
large measure to the lack of responsibility of the 
regular teacher for writing and to her lack of 
competence to supervise it. This is a very un- 
fortunate situation and it is a question whether 
it does not counterbalance the advantage of hav- 
ing skilled special writing teachers. Each pupil 
should possess a style of writing which is neither 
careless nor too precise, neither too fast nor too 
slow, and which can be used without substantial 
variation in all his work. 

The method of meeting these demands. How 
may these demands be met in the upper grades? 
By occasional review drills and by holding the 
pupils definitely up to a standard in all their 
writing. Once a week is probably often enough 
for the drills which, by the way, could very ad- 
vantageously be continued in the high school. A 
writing test could be given at the end of each 
drill period upon which the pupil could be graded. 



THE TEACHING OF R^NDWRITDsG 

Part of the penmanship grade, however, should 
be based on the pupil's written work in other 
subjects. Some exercise might be chosen each 
week, at random and without the pupil's knowl- 
edge which was to be selected, and the writing 
gnided. This grade, of course, could be based 
only on form or quality', while in the writing test 
speed should also be taken into accoimt. In ad- 
dition to these methods a ver>' good plan would 
be to refuse to accept any written work in any 
subject which failed to measure up to a certain 
minimum requirement. Due allowance should be 
made, of course, for iQdi\'idual denciency in ca- 
pacity'. 

In this chapter we have attempted to apply 
the principles which govern the writiag act to the 
problem of teaching. We considered, first, the 
various matters connected with form m writing, 
the position of the hand. arm. and body, pen- 
holding, etc. Next were discussed the applica- 
tion of the prin:"7.:f coveming the acquirement 
of the abiMty prcperly to execute the movement. 
FinalK-. the organization of the work ia the vari- 
ous gr.^ :. : f v: : ; : : . r>- school and its adap- 
tation to the SI age of progress of the pupils was 
outlined. Details of method, including some ref- 
: :: :: :.-::ent practice and to points of con- 
ii6 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

trovcrsy, have been taken up where they seemed 
to be most appropriate. This mode of treatment 
was chosen rather than the separate considera- 
tion of methods and of the organization of the 
work for the different grades in order to avoid 
unnecessary dupHcation. In this form we have 
put into practical application the analysis of the 
physiological and psychological principles which 
occupied the earlier sections of the book. 



AIMS AND STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

The purpose of handwriting is to serve as a 
means of the conamunication of thoughts to 
other persons. It is therefore a tool in the ex- 
pression of thought. The most immediate con- 
cern of education with reference to handwriting 
is that the pupils shall develop this tool to the 
highest degree of efficiency which will justify the 
time and energy expended and that this shall be 
done in the most economical manner possible. 
From the practical point of view then we need to 
know what constitutes efficient writing and how 
it can be recognized or measured. 

The qualities of excellence in handwriting 

The excellence of writing may be considered 
from the standpoint of either the writer or the 
reader. From the one point of view we consider 
the economy of production and from the other, 
economy in recognition. In the past it has been 
the reader who has been chiefly considered. The 
monks of the Middle Ages toiled long upon a 
ii8 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

single letter and produced manuscripts of great 
beauty and legibility. The modern school child 
has sometimes been taught as though the same 
ideal of achievement were suitable for him with- 
out regard for the fact that the monk was pro- 
ducing a permanent record which might be read 
over and over again while the modem writer is 
producing a temporary message which is likely 
to be read only once. In this case the time and 
energy of the writer are as much to be considered 
as are the time and energy of the reader. 

The first thing we must know, then, in order to 
judge of the efficiency of writing, is the energy 
which was required to produce it. Since we can- 
not well measure the expenditure of energy di- 
rectly, we have recourse to an indirect measure, 
namely, the time which is required to produce 
a given amount. Assuming that two persons put 
forth the same amount of effort and one takes 
twice as long to write one hundred words as the 
other, the one who takes double the time has 
expended double the energy. In so far as such 
expenditure is unnecessary it is waste. 

Speed and its measurement 

The first measure of the efficiency of writing, 
then, is speed. That this is not merely a theoreti- 
119 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

cal consideration, but is of practical importance, 
is shown by the great divergence in the speed 
of writing among children of the same age in dif- 
ferent classes or schools. Comparative measure- 
ments have shown that in some schools or school 
systems the speed is relatively above the quality 
of the writing when a certain relation between 
speed and quality is assumed as a standard. This 
method of comparison is illustrated in Fig. ii, 
page 145. In other cases the speed is below the 
quality, and in still other cases the two run closely 
together. The same divergences appear if we 
compare different grades in the same school or 
system. 

It is apparent, then, that speed is sometimes 
developed at the expense of quaHty, and vice versa. 
But we cannot assume that low speed is always 
accompanied by good quality or that high speed 
always implies poor quality. There is no con- 
stant relationship between the two characteris- 
tics of writing. Sometimes, for example, there is 
high excellence in both respects and sometimes 
there is deficiency in both. 

If we wish, then, to gain an accurate notion 

of the efficiency of the writing of any child or 

group of children, we must measure the speed 

of their writing. This measurement is simple in 

120 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

principle, but in order that it shall be reliable 
certain precautions must be taken. 

The following form of procedure is recommended. 
First in regard to the matter which is to be written. 
Since our aim is to measure merely the speed of writ- 
ing and not the speed of the thought process, the 
writing should not be interrupted by the necessity 
for reflection. That is, the child should memorize 
thoroughly what he is to write so that he may write 
continuously. Again, when a test given at one time 
is^;to be compared with a test given at another time, 
the material should be as similar as possible in the 
two tests, though not identical. For this purpose it 
would be well to select a poem of uniform character 
and require the child to memorize it at the beginning 
of the experiment. One stanza should then be used 
at the first test and the second stanza at the second 
test, etc. If the child finishes the stanza within the 
specified period he should begin it again and so con- 
tinue until the end of the period. At the end of the 
experiment it would be well to have the child write 
all of the stanzas at one time in order to find out 
whether they are of equal difficulty or not. 

A three-minute period will be found of convenient 
length for a test. The children should have their 
paper and pens ready to write at the signal from the 
teacher. They should then write continuously until 
the signal to stop is given. Either after or before the 
test each child should write his name, age and grade 
upon the paper. 

121 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

The manner of giving instruction for the test is 
important. It has been found, for example, that the 
result will vary greatly according as the child thinks 
that the speed of his writing or the quahty is being 
tested. If, now, we are endeavoring to secure his 
ordinary writing we must be careful to avoid giving 
the impression that we are testing particularly either 
speed or form. For this purpose some such instruc- 
tion as the following might be used. Without telling 
the child at all that he is undergoing a test, one may 
say: "Write the first stanza of the poem which you 
have learned. Write it just as you would in a com- 
position or an ordinary school exercise. If you finish 
before the end of the time, begin and write it over 
again. Begin to write when I say *Now' and stop 
when I say ' Stop.' " It would be well to carry on a 
preliminary experiment in order to be sure that the 
children understand the instructions.^ 

( The quality of the written product 

So much for the determination of efficiency 
from the standpoint of the writer himself. The 
reader must also be considered. So soon as we 
get beyond the judgment of the ordinary ob- 
server and attempt to determine differences in 
excellence more precisely it becomes necessary 

1 From an article by the author entitled "Problems and 
Methods of Investigation in Handwriting," in The Journal of 
Educational Psychology, 191 2, pp. 181-90. 

122 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

to answer the question regarding the features of 
writing which make it good or bad. The more 
exactly we answer this question the more Hkely 
we will be to agree with others or with ourselves 
at different times as to how good a particular 
specimen or set of specimens is. Another reason 
why the settlement of this question is important 
is that it will make it possible to set before the 
pupil a definite goal of attainment. We can then 
say to the pupil not only, "Your writing is poor. 
Make it more like the copy/' but we can point 
out to him just in what ways it is poor and needs 
to be improved in order that it may resemble 
good writing. 

Uniformity 

One of the characteristics which is most obvi- 
ously related to excellence in writing is uniform- 
ity. Lack of uniformity detracts from the good 
appearance of writing and in some measure from 
its legibihty. There are two aspects of writing 
in which lack of uniformity may be readily de- 
tected and measured. These are the slant and 
ahnement of the letters. We may confine our 
attention to the two or more space letters in 
judging uniformity of slant and to the one-space 
letters in judging uniformity of alinement.^ 
123 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

The charts for grading uniformity and other 
characteristics 

In order to illustrate different degrees of ex- 
cellence in these and in other characteristics 
about to be mentioned, and to make it possible to 
grade writing according to the degree to which it 
possesses them, a series of charts has been con- 
structed, which is reproduced in the Appendix 
to this monograph. Each chart represents three 
degrees of excellence, the lowest one being num- 
bered I and the others 3 and 5 respectively. The 
intermediate numbers 2 and 4 may be used when 
the specimen to be judged seems to belong about 
midway between the ranks above and below it. 

The specimens for these charts have been se- 
lected in the following manner : A large number 
of specimens of the writing of children in grades 
three to eight were examined and classified into 
as many ranks as could be readily distinguished, 
according to each of the characteristics or cate- 
gories which are represented on the scale. In 
some cases four ranks were distinguished and in 
the others five. This, then, formed a tentative 
scale. This tentative scale was then used as 
a guide by twenty-three advanced students in 
grading one hundred specimens into ten ranks 
124 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

according to each category. The one hundred 
specimens were selected from a large number of 
specimens of writing of children of the same 
grades as before so as to get so far as possible 
representatives of the different t5^es of writing 
and grades of excellence. It was then found pos- 
sible to select specimens which should represent 
ten approximately equal steps for each category 
on the basis of the average judgments of all the 
graders. 

The scale which was thus based on the simple 
judgment of a number of competent judges, even 
when the judgments were simplified by tentative 
scales to be used as models and by the concentra- 
tion of attention on a single attribute at a time, 
did not, however, produce entirely satisfactory 
results. This appeared clearly in two cases in 
which the judgments of the graders could be 
checked up by objective measurement, namely, 
in the imiformity of slant and of alinement. It 
was only necessary to measure the average devia- 
tion of a number of letters in each specimen to 
determine that the order in which they were 
placed by the rather consistent judgment of the 
graders departed widely from the true order. 

The scale was then remodeled by basing the 
order of the specimens so far as possible on an 
125. 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

objective measurement of the characteristic in 
question or at least employing some means to ex- 
aggerate the characteristic so as to make judg- 
ment easier. How this was done in each case will 
be described in connection with the discussion 
of the different qualities which form the basis of 
the scale. 

If the unaided judgment of the grader was not 
sufficient in the construction of the scale neither 
can it be expected to be sufficient in using it. In the 
case of each section of the scale then some device 
is employed to emphasize or even exaggerate the 
characteristic to which attention is to be given. 

Furthermore it cannot be too strongly asserted 
that the analysis of the excellencies or defects of 
writing cannot be satisfactorily made except by 
one who has had some practice in the matter and 
who has made himself familiar with the charac- 
teristic differences which are to be found. The 
unpracticed observer in this as in other fields 
simply does not see the differences which must 
be taken into account. The purpose of the scale 
which is here represented is to serve as a guide to 
the teacher or other observer in learning to de- 
tect differences in the elementary characteris- 
tics of writing and to furnish him with a series of 
numerical designations by which he may express 
126 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

his judgments. By this means a permanent 
record may be made of the judgments which 
are passed, and they may be compared with 
judgments passed upon other specimens. 

Uniformity of slant 

To return to the category uniformity of slant. 
By reference to Chart i in the Appendix it will be 
seen that three degrees of uniformity are repre- 
sented. In order to make prominent the feature 
which is to be estimated lines are drawn parallel 
to the down strokes of the two or more space let- 
ters, which may be used as the basis for the judg- 
ment. The amount in degrees of the deviation 
from uniformity as expressed by the average 
deviation is given in the column to the left of 
each specimen under the caption M. V. The 
judgment upon a specimen should be recorded 
in terms of the rank which seems most closely to 
correspond to it in the scale. It will be noticed 
that the amount of difference between ranks i 
and 3 is greater than that between ranks 3 and 
5. The reason for this difference is that it is pre- 
sumably easier to distinguish differences in vari- 
ability when the uniformity is high than when 
it is low. The same assumption is made in the 
case of uniformity of alinement. 
127 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

In order to render the judgment of the uni- 
formity of slant in the specimen to be graded 
easier, in somewhat the fashion that comparison 
of the specimens in the scale is facilitated, the lines 
of Fig. 13, page 151, may be traced on a sheet 
of transparent paper. If the series of parallel lines 
which most nearly resemble the slant of the 
writing to be judged is placed above the writing, 
the degree of deviation can be estimated by com- 
parison with the standard lines. 

Uniformity of alinement 

Uniformity of alinement is represented in Chart 
II. Uniformity is measured with reference to the 
tops and bottoms of the one-space letters. The 
degree of deviation was calculated on the basis 
of the average deviation in the distance of these 
points from a straight base line. As in the case 
of uniformity of slant, guide lines are drawn to 
make it easier to detect the amount of deviation. 
A guide line is also supplied in Fig. 13, which 
when traced may be placed over the specimen to 
be judged. As in the case of uniformity of slant 
the judgment should be recorded in terms of the 
rank of the corresponding specimen in the chart. 

A difficulty arises in judging uniformity of aline- 
ment due to the fact that deviations are more 
128 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

striking when the letters are close together than 
when they are spread farther apart. This may be 
seen by comparing the specimens of rank 2, both 
of which have the same average deviation. The 
use of a guide line overcomes the dif&culty to 
some extent, but not wholly. It must also be con- 
sciously guarded against. 

Quality of the line or stroke 

A third important characteristic of writing is 
the quality of the line or stroke by which the 
letters are produced. The stroke may be smooth, 
firm, and even; or it may be tremulous, weak, and 
irregular. The one kind of stroke inevitably sug- 
gests a smoothly flowing, free, and regular move- 
ment, and the other an uneven, jerky, cramped 
movement. The differences, however, are not 
always easy to detect, and in order to make them 
more evident portions of each specimen in the 
chart (Chart iii) are enlarged. After the enlarged 
records have been examined the irregularities 
may be made out in the originals. If further as- 
sistance in grading is desired the writing on the 
specimens to be graded may be enlarged by 
means of a reading glass. 

The quality of the stroke is important not only 
for what it indicates of the character of the move- 
129 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

ment but also because it affects the beauty, and 
to some degree the legibility, of the writing itself. 

Excellence in the qualities of uniformity and 
character of the line is based chiefly on the pos- 
session of a well-coordinated writing movement, 
and deficiencies in these regards are to be over- 
come largely through the acquirement of an easy, 
fluent, regular movement. That is, mistakes in 
these matters are to be corrected more by atten- 
tion to the movement than by fixing attention 
directly on the writing itself. Irregularities in 
slant, for example, are due to the fact that in 
making succeeding strokes the hand or arm is not 
in the same position. Sometimes the variations 
in position and the accompanying shifts in slant 
occur frequently and at irregular intervals; and 
sometimes the slant is uniform for a number of 
words, or even lines, and then there is a sudden 
change. There is also one other type of change 
in slant which is due, paradoxically, not to a 
change in the manner of holding the hand or 
arm, but to the maintenance of the same position. 
This is the increased slant which occurs at the 
end of the line. This type of variation was dis- 
cussed in a former chapter. 

We have next to consider two features of writ- 
ing which are not so immediately related to the 
130 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

character of the writing movement. That is, 
their development is brought about not so much 
by giving attention to the perfection of the move- 
ment as by giving direct attention to the letters 
and words which are produced by the movement. 
The two features which come imder this head are 
letter formation and spacing. 

That there are these two classes of qualities in 
writing, one of which is to be developed by giving 
attention to the movement and the other by con- 
sidering the character of the written product, is 
not always recognized. Some would trust for the 
amehoration of all writing evils to the develop- 
ment of the right sort of movement, while others 
would allow movement to develop in a hit or 
miss manner in the process of trying to pro- 
duce well-formed letters. The distinction here 
drawn implies that neither of these methods by 
itself is adequate. 

Letter formation 
Letter formation is the matter to which the 
child's attention has been chiefly directed in the 
traditional methods of teaching. It still is of 
more importance than any other one feature, and 
we shall express this superior importance by giv- 
ing it double weight in the final score. Hence in 
131 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

Chart IV the three ranks which are represented 
are designated 2,6, and 10 instead of 1,3, and 5, 
and the intermediate ranks should be numbered 
4 and 8 instead of 2 and 4. This increased weight 
given to letter formation is justified by the fact 
that the form of the letters is the fundamental 
basis of legibility. 

The task of grading letter formation presents 
peculiar difficulties which are due to the confu- 
sion between fundamental and universal features 
of the form of a letter and those features which 
are peculiar to a particular style of alphabet. 
Thus, for example, in some copies which are set 
up as a standard the second up stroke of the m or 
n leaves the preceding down stroke immediately, 
while in other styles it follows the down stroke 
for half or more of the way up. Now it seems 
obvious that in any method which is to be used in 
judging any style of writing, as is the case with 
this method, only those characteristics of the let- 
ters which are universal and essential must be con- 
sidered. 

One principle at least is clear as governing 
letter formation. No letter should vary from its 
conventional form in such a way that it is likely 
to be confused with another letter or to lose its 
characteristic form. It is not always easy to de- 
132 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

termine whether a particular deviation from the 
conventional form is detrimental to the ease 
with which the writing can be read or not. In 
general we may put the burden of proof on the 
person who makes the deviation, and if there 
is doubt incline to the view that the deviation 
should be discouraged. There are many devia- 
tions, however, which clearly do not render the 
writing less legible and it is pedantry to seek to 
prevent them. Every adult writer who uses his 
pen much falls into ways of making the letters 
which are more or less peculiar to himself, and 
there is no reason why children should not be 
allowed the same privilege provided they do not 
shift too often from one style to another. 

The figure on page 135 (Fig. 9) illustrates a 
large number of typical errors arranged accord- 
ing to the order of the letters in the alphabet. A 
number of common principles may also be traced 
among groups of letters. 

A frequent fault which is common to a number 
of letters consists in leaving a loop open which 
should be closed or closing a loop which should 
be open. This is illustrated in the specimens of 
the letters a, dj, g, 0, q, s, and v. Sometimes the 
legibility is seriously affected by the fact that the 
stroke runs higher or lower than it should. This 
^33 



;THE TEACHING OF IL\XDWRITLNG 

may affect only part of the letter or it may make 
the whole letter too large or too small. Examples 
appear in the second b, the second/, thej's, the 
second k, the second /. the second ;:. the second Oy 
the first g. the second y, and the :;. The confusion 
due to size commonly occurs when the capitals 
are made like the small letters, as in the case of 
the .4, C, G, J/, T, 0, Q, 5. U, F, TT', X, Y, and 
Z. (These are not shown in the figure.) Often an 
important part of the letter is slurred over so as 
to cause it to lose its characteristic form, as may 
be seen in the figure in the case of letters b, h, c 
(first specimen under /\ k. q, r. s, -li'. and y. The 
substitution of angles for curv'es and T-ice Tcrsa is 
illustrated in the m. the ;/. and the :/. The sub- 
stitution of loops for return strokes along the 
same line or the reverse is seen in the letters r, d, 
e,J, i, and /. Sometimes a return stroke is sub- 
stituted for an open cur\-e or an open ciir\-e for a 
return stroke, as in the first r. and the first r. 
Finally, a stroke may have faulty direction or be 
misplaced, as in the second t, the first u, or the 
.r's. or the spacing may be irregular, as between 
the first c and the letter following it. 

The chief consideration which is at the basis 
of the foregoing analysis of errors in letter forma- 
tion is legibiHty. The factor of beauty must also 

134 




^^c<^-^ ^^-^/^-^ i^<^^^^ 

/^ Ty^jes 0/ illegible forms of 

^ ^^^j^^LA^eyZyf^^ letters which are to be 

counted as errors. 





Figure g 

Illustration of gross errors in letter formation. 



/ THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

be taken into account. From this point of view a 
letter may be easily distinguishable, but may not 
be pleasing because it does not conform to its 
type. We should be getting on debatable ground 
if we should attempt to choose between different 
types of script, but it is clear that whatever t3^e 
is used, the individual letters should conform to 
it. In other words, the letter formation should 
be consistent. Strokes of the same nature, for 
example, should be made in the same way. Thus 
the similar strokes of the /f, w, w, p; of the a, d, 
gy and q; of the i, u, v, w, should be alike in fact 
as well as in theory if the writing is to present 
the most pleasing appearance. What degree of 
excellence we should require of the average pupil 
in the elementary school is a question to be deter- 
mined, but it is certain that letter formation as 
here defined is an element of writing excellence. 

These two factors in letter formation taken 
together, legibility and beauty, constitute the 
basis of grading in this characteristic. In this, as 
in the other characteristics, three grades of ex- 
cellence are represented in Chart iv. The speci- 
mens were graded independently by two methods, 
and their final rank was determined by combin- 
ing the results of the two methods. First, ten 
specimens were chosen from the one hundred 
136 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

which had been ranked by the twenty-three 
judges so as to represent approximately equal 
intervals. Then these ten specimens were ranked 
by a method of detailed analysis of each letter 
in which the faults of each stroke were counted.^ 
These faults are indicated on the chart by small 
arrowheads. The results of the two methods 
were expressed in terms of percentage and aver- 
aged. The average percentages, based on a range 
of o to I GO, are given in the column at the left 
of the specimens. It will be seen that the gross 
errors illustrated in Fig. 9 are relatively infre- 
quent in the specimens of the scale. They occur 
only in the most careless writing, and in order to 
distinguish any but the lowest degrees of excel- 
lence we must employ the more minute analysis 
such as is illustrated in the chart. 

Spacing 

There remains a fifth feature of writing which 
has a very important bearing on its quality, 
both from the point of view of legibility and of 
beauty, and that is spacing. We may confine 

1 This work was done by Mr. R. R. Simpkins, of the State 
Normal School at Macomb, Illinois, whose service the writer 
gratefully acknowledges. Mr. Simpkins used a system of mark- 
ing devised by himself. 



THE TEACHING OE HANDWRITING 

our attention to spacing between letters and be- 
tween words, although the space between lines 
is also of great importance. Line spacing, how- 
ever, is usually determined for the child by the 
fact that he writes on lined paper. Furthermore, 
while crowding the lines together is a serious 
fault, it is not difficult to correct. 

The three faults in spacing between letters and 
words which are of importance are first crowding 
the letters, second, spreading them too far apart, 
and third, crowding the words. The fourth possi- 
bility, that of spreading the words too far apart, 
is not so frequently found, nor does it seriously 
detract from the quality of the writing. These 
faults may exist alone or singly. To illustrate them 
a scale, Chart v, has been artificially made by 
constructing specimens in which the spacing is 
correct, or in which faults of spacing exist singly 
or in combination. Those specimens which have 
one fault are placed in the middle rank and 
those which have two are placed in the lowest 
rank. 

The correct spacing for three different styles of 
writing was first found in the following manner. 
Fifteen persons were asked to judge what spacing 
between the letters and words in the specimens 
was most pleasing. The spacing was varied by 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

a device which need not be described here. The 
median of their judgments was then taken as 
the most satisfactory spacing. Variations in the 
spacing of these specimens were then artificially 
produced by the use of tracing paper and in 
this way the specimens of ranks 3 and i were 
produced. The representation of these various 
possible variations from the standard serves as 
a guide in discovering the kinds and degrees or 
variations in the samples to be judged and makes 
it possible to give them an appropriate rank. 

When a specimen has been given a rank in 
each of the five characteristics a total grade may 
be given it by adding the individual measures. 
This gives equal weight to the different charac- 
teristics except letter formation, and until we 
have further evidence than is now at our com- 
mand regarding their relative importance this is 
the best we can do. 

Grading a specimen for illustration 

The procedure of grading a specimen of writing 
by means of the scale may be made clear by 
grading the sample specimen shown in Fig. 10. 
The slant of this specimen is rather variable. It 
grades not over 3. Uniformity of alinement is 
also very low. See for example the variation in 
139 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

the words sweet and land. The specimen deserves 
but rank 2 in this characteristic. QuaHty of line 
is equally poor and receives also rank 2. The 
formation of the letters is better, though it is 
affected by the irregularities which have been 
already noted. We may grade letter formation 
by the middle rank, 6. Spacing is the strongest 
point of the specimen and deserves a rank of 4. 
The rank of the paper then is: Uniformity of 
slant, 3; uniformity of alinement, 2; quality of 
line, 2; letter formation, 6; and spacing, 4; total, 
17. It is clear from this analysis what the chief 
trouble with this specimen is. It grades low in 
those characteristics which depend primarily on 
the character of the writing movement and 
higher in those characteristics which depend 
more on the recognition of the form of the written 
words. What this pupil needs is the acquisition 
of a smooth, well-coordinated movement. 
J The fundamental aim of this scale is to assist 
the teacher to pick out and to designate in nu- 
merical terms the degrees of excellence of each 
pupil's writing. It is primarily for the use of the 
teacher. The teacher has to lead the pupil to a 
correction of his faults, not merely to tell him 
how bad his writing is. The teacher must there- 
fore be able to discriminate one kind of fault 
140 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

from another. She must also be able to keep a 
record of the pupil's advancement, not merely in 
a general way, but also in respect to the various 
elements of his performance. The time is coming 
when the pupil will have definite standards of 
attainment set up before him and when his prog- 
ress toward those standards will be carefully 
recorded and revealed to him. Probably also 
when the pupil has reached the standard of 
attainment in a particular branch he will be 
relieved of further work in that line, regardless of 
the grade he may happen to be in. The necessary 
preliminary to this condition is the possession of 
means of definitely determining in a discriminat- 
ing way what the pupiFs attainment is. To serve 
such a purpose for writing is the aim of this scale. 

Standards of attainment 

The pupil's progress and his ultimate attain- 
ment should be judged, then, not on the basis of 
the comparison of his work with that of his class- 
mates, but rather by a comparison of his work 
with a standard of achievement. It therefore 
becomes necessary to determine upon a standard 
which can reasonably be required. If such a 
standard is necessary for the rational grading and 
promotion of the individual pupil, it is still more 
142 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

obviously required for the purpose of judging the 
efficiency of teachers or the value of particular 
methods of teaching. 

For the determination of a rational standard 
of achievement in writing in the grades, several 
inter-related factors must be taken into account. 
In the first place, we must know what are the 
limits of attainment of ordinary pupils of various 
grades or ages under the best teaching to be 
found. If we have reason to conclude that the 
maximum of attainment possible is nowhere 
reached, we may perhaps place the standard 
above anything that is actually found. We are 
never justified, however, in placing the standard 
below what has been actually attained and has 
therefore been proven to be possible of attain- 
ment. The average of attainment in the public 
schools in general cannot therefore be regarded 
as a vaKd standard. 

This principle of maximum attainment pos- 
sible maybe applied to a comparison of lower and 
higher grades as well as of different schools or 
systems. In this connection, it may be stated 
thus: the maximum attainment in any grade is 
to be taken into account in judging the attain- 
ment of the succeeding grades. In other words, 
every grade may reasonably be expected to reach 

143 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

a higher standard of attainment than the preced- 
ing grade. 

The second general principle which must be 
taken into account in setting up standards is that 
the value of any particular degree of attainment 
must be judged in relation to the amount of teach- 
ing and learning time which is required in order to 
reach it. In this connection, we must consider par- 
ticularly the law of diminishing returns in prac- 
tice. After a certain amount of time has been 
spent on practice, the expenditure of additional 
time does not result in a proportionate gain in 
efficiency. A slight superiority in attainment in 
writing which is purchased by the expenditure 
of a large amount of extra time is not profitable 
unless such superiority is found to be essential. 

This brings us to the third principle, which is 
that the amount of time which it is worth while 
to spend and the degree of efficiency which it is 
worth while to attain is to be judged in view of 
the social demand for this particular product of 
education in comparison with the demand for 
other products. This social demand must, of 
course, be viewed in the broadest way and must 
not be confined to the narrow industrial or com- 
mercial demand. 

We have not yet sufficient data for a complete 
144 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 



application of these principles to writing/ but 
they may serve to guide us in setting up tentative 
standards. The best results for our purpose 
which have been published have been attained 



ality 






















5iuiiitj-— 










70 






School A 




















^ 


^ 


bo 






















Speed- 


^ 


^ 


/ 


i^ 


60 






















y1- 


^ 




..-^ 


-A 


..^^ 


bb 






r,w^ 


n- 


^ 









x^ 


^ 


// 


\ 










50 




..• 


:>■ 








^ 


^ 


'\ 


._- 






'■" 


--- 






4S 










y^ 


^ 


/ 


























^ 


^ 




c^/ 
































'^ 






















ao 




\ 




'-- 


■'"' 























Sfjeed 
100 



Grade IB lA 2B 2A 3B «A 4B 4A 6B 5A 6B oA 7B 7A 8B 8A 

Figure ii 



by the schools in Connersville, Indiana, as re- 
ported by Superintendent Wilson.^ The data are 
presented graphically in the accompanying chart 
(Fig. ii). 
The two dotted lines marked quality and speed 

1 The writer is now engaged in an investigation for the Com- 
mittee on Economy of Time of the Department of Superin- 
tendence which will give more detailed facts on which to base 
conclusions. The results will be published in the 19 15 Year- 
book of the National Society for the Study of Education. 

2 G. M. Wilson, "The Handwriting of School Children," 
Elementary School Teacher, 191 1, vol. xi, pp. 540-43- 

145. 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

represent the attainment of the various grades in 
the first test given. Quality, which has been put 
in terms of the Ayers Scale/ is to be read by 
reference to the figures on the left margin and 
speed in terms of letters per minute by reference 
to the figures at the right. After the test an effort 
was made to improve the writing, particularly in 
speed. The result of the effort is presented for 
grade 6A, and is indicated on the chart by the 
horizontal strokes on the column for grade 6A 
marked "quality" and *' speed." The heavy 
black line running diagonally across the chart 
represents a proposed tentative standard and 
may be discussed on the basis of the principles 
and facts which have been presented. 

With the data at hand we can apply most com- 
pletely the first principle which is concerned with 
the best attainment to be found. It will be seen 
that the school system represented in the chart 
comes up to the tentative standard as far as 
grade 4A, if we strike an average between speed 
and quality. The speed in the case is obviously 
too slow and raising it would probably bring 
down the quality in these lower grades. Above 
grade 4A the actual performance in the first test 

1 L. P. Ayers, A Scale for Measuring the Handwriting of 
School Children. Russell Sage Foundation Publications no. 113. 

146 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

is below the standard, but in grade 6B the stand- 
ard is almost reached. Beyond this grade no 
progress was made. That this condition, which 
violates the general principle laid down above, is 
unnecessary is shown by the great improvement 
which was made after the test in both speed and 
quaHty by grade 6A, which brought this grade 
considerably above the standard. It is reason- 
able to suppose that the other grades could do 
proportionately as well. 

The objection may be made that while the 
standard laid down, which requires the ability 
to write one hundred letters a minute with a 
quality equivalent to grade 70 on the Ayers Scale 
at the conclusion of the eighth grade, is possible 
of attainment, such a degree of attainment is not 
worth the effort necessary to reach it. We do not 
know the time which was spent in teaching writ- 
ing in the school system under consideration, 
but there is no reason to think that it exceeded 
the average, which is about fifteen minutes a day. 
For many occupations certainly the standard is 
not merely not high, but it is low. Thus for 
the clerk, the bookkeeper, the agent or superin- 
tendent who must make out reports, the small 
business or professional man who writes his own 
letters, the teacher, etc., a fluent and legible 
147 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

style of writing is essential. What proportion of 
eighth-grade graduates enter these occupations, 
we do not know, but some estimate can be made 
for the larger cities from a table compiled by 
Ayers.^ He found that thirty-four per cent of 
the fathers of elementary school children were 
classed as clerks and salesmen, managers, super- 
intendents and proprietors, and professional and 
financial workers. In addition, forty per cent 
were classed as artisans and industrial foremen, 
and a large number of these should be able to 
write well. Furthermore, the pupils who enter 
high school, who form thirty-five per cent of the 
school population according to Strayer's estimate 
in the article on "Retardation and Elimination" 
in the Cyclopedia of Education, have much use 
for rapid and legible writing. 

It should not be inferred from the preceding 
discussion that the eighth-grade standard as set 
forth above represents either very good or very 
rapid writing. A glance at the specimens of 
grade 70 on the Ayers Scale will convince the 
reader that the form is not excessively good. 
That the rate of 100 letters a minute is not exces- 
sive for the eighth grade is shown by the fact 

1 L. P. Ayers, "Factors affecting Industrial Education," 
Elementary School Teacher j 1914, vol. xiv, pp. 313-18. 

148 



STANDARDS FOR HANDWRITING 

that the sixth grade of one school which the 
writer investigated wrote at the average rate of 
114 letters a minute without falling below the 
average in quality. 

The discussion of standards thus far has been 
in terms of the Ayers Scale, since the measure- 
ments have been made in terms of either this or 
the Thorndike Scale. ^ For the convenience of 
those who may use the scale described in this 
book for teaching purposes, and who may wish to 
use the results which are obtained with it to com- 
pare their grade or school with the standard, a 
second standard has been worked out in terms 
of the analytical scale described in this chapter 
which is approximately equivalent to the stand- 
ard presented above. (See Fig. 12). The equiva- 
lence of the two standards was worked out by 
grading the same set of papers by the two scales. 

The way in which an absolute standard of 
attainment such as is here set forth may be used 
in the grading and promotion of individual pupils 
has already been incidentally suggested. Every 
test of the ability of pupils in handwriting brings 
out the fact of a large amount of overlapping of 
the successive grades. Many children are supe- 

1 E. L. Thorndike, "Handwriting," Teachers College Record^ 
igio, vol. IX, no. 2. 

149 



THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 



rior in attainment to the average of attainment of 
several grades above them. If the children were 
given an additional incentive to improvement by 



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being granted exemption from the writing lesson 
or promotion to a higher grade in writing as soon 
as they had attained the standard of the second 
grade above them, many of them would soon, in 
all probability, attain this degree of efficiency. 
We can do no more here than suggest the possi- 
bilities of this type of application of an educa- 
tional standard in solving the problem of waste 
in education. The suggested solution rests upon 
the practice, first, of setting up definite standards 
of attainment, and, second, of furnishing the pupil 
adequate incentives to come up to the standards. 

150 



I 



1 



OUTLINE 

I. THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 

1. Handwriting a new form of expression ... i 

2. The teaching problem centers in the writing 
movement 2 

3. An artificial product of training rather than an 
instinctive activity 3 

4. Psychology, physiology, and hygiene involved . 4 

II. THE CONSTITUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 
OF THE WRITING PROCESS 

1. The writing act is complex 8 

2. The movement is composed of a variety of ele- 
mentary movements 9 

3. Writing also involves control sensations and 
language ideas 19 

4. How the mental process becomes simplified 
through practice 21 

5. The movement becomes organized with practice 25 

6. As the movement becomes organized the atten- 
tion comes to comprehend larger units ... 27 

7. Learning to write is conditioned partly by the 
stages of development at different ages ... 29 

153 



OUTLINE 



III. THE PSYCHOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF 
WRITING 

1. The requirements of good posture and their con- 
sequences for writing 32 

2. Requirements of hygiene of the eyes . . . . 41 

3. The hygiene of movement 45 

4. Writer's cnamp 52 



IV. THE TEACHING OF HANDWRITING 

1. Correct form in the writing movement ... 56 

2. Penholding 57 

3. Position of the arm 62 

4. Learning to execute the movement : the trial and 
success method 64 

5. The need of many repetitions 66 

6. The necessity of attention 67 

7. Incentives to attention should be chiefly intrinsic 69 

8. Analysis of defects in WTiting and their causes, 

in use by Principal Reavis 72 

9. Length and frequency of periods of practice . 73 

10. Imitation of a person writing better than imita- 
tion of a copy merely 74 

11. The special methods adapted to different grades 77 

12. Handwriting in the primary grades .... 78 

a. When the beginner may be taught .... 78 

b. His writing should be very large .... 80 

c. He should write with the arm as a whole . 80 

d. Appropriate standards of size, speed, and ac- 
curacy 82 

154 



OUTLINE 

e. The requirement as to speed 83 

/. The standards of speed and accuracy must ad- 
vance together 85 

g. Writing should have meaning to the child 

from the beginning 87 

h. The words and sentences should present pro- 
gressive difficulties 87 

i. The value of formal drill 88 

j. Individuals vary in capacity and needs . . 89 
k. What may be required by the end of the third 

year 90 

13. Handwriting in the intermediate grades ... 90 

a. The best type of movement 91 

h. Position of the paper and of the arm, and 

slant 96 

c. Movement drill 99 

d. Rhythm and counting 104 

e. Letter groups on the basis of movement . . 106 

/. Organization of exercises 109 

g. Style of alphabet in 

14. Handwriting in the grammar grades . . . .113 
a. Prevent the pupil from falling into bad habits 113 
h. Increase the efficiency of his habit . . . .113 

c. Make it completely automatic 114 

(i) Avoid continual experimenting with the 

style of writing 114 

(2) Use one style in both writing lessons and 

other school work 115 

d. The method of meeting these demands . .115 



155 



OUTLINE 



V. AIMS AND STANDARDS FOR 
HANDWRITING 

1. The qualities of excellence in handwriting . .118 

2. Speed and its measurement 119 

3. The quality of the written product . . . .122 

4. Uniformity 123 

5. The charts for grading uniformity and other 
characteristics 124 

6. Uniformity of slant 127 

7. Uniformity of alinement 128 

8. Quality of the line or stroke 129 

9. Letter formation 131 

10. Spacing 137 

11. Grading a specimen for illustration 139 

12. Standards of attainment 142 



APPENDIX 



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Chart I, 



Uniformity of Slant 



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in the reproduction of tliis chart the lines have become smoother. This luodittcation is particularly marked in the case of 
Lie pooS specimens. In using- the chart, therefore, an allowance should he made tor this tact. 



Chart IV. 



Letter Formation 




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